
Class v.; H X:f3 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



MILK -ANALYSIS. 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE 



EXAMINATION OF MILK AND ITS DERIVATIVES, 
CEEAM, BUTTEE, AND CHEESE. 



J.^ALFEED WANKLYN, M.E.aS., 

CPBEESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL BAVARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; 
PUBLIC ANALYST FOR BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, BUCKING- 
HAM. ANG HIGH WYCOMBE, 




NEW YOBK: 
D. VAN NOSTEAND, PUBLISHEE, 

2o Murray and 27 Warrex Stkkei'. 

1874. 



vv 



%' 



PREFACE. 



-:o:- 



During the year 1871 I devoted much attention 
to the subject of niilk-analjsis, and, besides 
making many hundreds of analyses of milk 
purchased in different parts of London for the 
Milk Joiomal, was employed by Government 
in an investigation into the milk supplied to 
the Metropolitan Workhouses. I have likewise 
examined the milk supplied to the Hospitals in 
London.' 

In the course of this work, I have been 
fortunate enough to make some improvements 
in the art of milk-analysis, and, in particular, 
some Uttle modifications in the taking of milk- 
residues, so as to tranfer such determinations 
(which before were tedious and uncertain) into 
the list of the simplest and most exact of chemi- 
cal analyses. At the present time, when a new 



PREFACE. 



class of men has been constituted to watch over 
the food of the country, there is need for special 
manuals of this description. 

London, November, 1873. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. PAG«- 

INTRODUCTORY — MILK, ITS NATURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSI- 
TION — DESCRIPIION OF EACH OF ITS CONSTITUENTS — CON- 
STANCY OF ITS COMPOSITION, 1 



CHAPTER II. 

INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS FOR TESTING MILK — OUTLINE OP 
METHOD OP MILK-ANALYSIS, 



8 



CHAPTER III. 

MILK-SOLIDS, 1^ 

CHAPTER TV. 

THE FAT, 20 

CHAPTER V. 

CASEINE, 24 

CHAPTER VI. 

MILK-SUGAR, 27 

CHAPTER Vn. 
ASH, 29 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CALCULATION AND STATEMENT OF RESULTS, . . . .31 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE MILK SUPPLY OF THE LONDON WORK-HOUSES, ... 34 



6 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER X. 

CREAM, 47 

CHAPTER XL 

BUTTER, £3 

CHAPTER XII. 
CHEESE, 58 

CHAPTER XIII. 

KOUMISS, . , ... , . , , , .60 

CHAPTER XIV. 

CONDENSED AND PRESERVED MILK, .,,... G3 

CHAPTER XV. 

POISONOUS MILK AND MILK-PANICS, .,,,.. 65 



MILK - A^^ALYSIS 



CHAPTEE I. 



INTRODUCTOKY. 



Milk, which, is the secretion of the mammary glands, and 
constitutes the entire food and drink of the young mammal, 
is an aqueous solution of caseine, milk-sugar, and small 
quantities of mineral material, and holds in suspension a 
quantity of fat in a state of fine subdivision. 

The milk of the cow, to which we will confine our atten- 
tion in this work, has been analyzed at various times by 
many chemists. My own analyses, which are among the 
most recent, are as follows : — 

In 100 cubic centimetres of average country milk I 
found — 



Water . 


90.09 grammes 


Fat . . . 


3.16 


Caseine . 


4.16 


Milk-sugar 


4.76 


Ash 


0.73 *' 



102.90 



8 MTLK-ANALYSIS. 

Town-fed milk is a little richer. According to my analysis, 
it contains in 100 cubic centimetres — 



Water . 


88.43 grammes 


Fat 


4.1!2 


Casein e . 


5.16 " 


Milk-sugar 


4.43 


Ash 


0.76 



89.88 


grammes 


3.31 


11 


4.75 


It 


4.24 


(. 


0.72 


IC 



102.90 

I have likewise made an analysis of the milk of the Alder- 
ney cow, which, notwithstanding the popular prejudice in 
its favor, as will be seen, does not much differ from other 
milk. I found in 100 cubic centimetres of such milk — 

Water . 

Fat . . . 

Caseine . 

IMilk-sugar 

Ash 

102.90 

The wafer which enters into the constitution of milk may 
be extracted from it by evaporation, and, that having been 
done, there will remain behind the inllk solids, which consist 
of the fat, caseine, milk-sugar, and ash (or mineral matters) 
conjointly. 

The fat exists in milk in the form of very minute globules. 
It is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of chemi- 
cal substances. It consists of olein, palmitin, stearin, and 
small quantities of butyrin and other fats. All these differ- 
ent fatty substances are ethers of glycerine, and are capable 
of yielding glycerine when digested wdth alkalies, yielding as 



INTEODUCTOET. U 

the same time the corresponding alkaline salt. Thus when 
the fat of milk is digested with potash or soda, it furnishes 
glycerine, and, at the same time, the oleate, palmitate, 
stearate, and butyrate of potash or soda. The fat of milk is 
hard at winter temperatures, and soft at summer temperatures 
(its fusing point lying, in fact, at such temperatures as are 
reached in summer). Fat is distinguished from the other 
solid constituents of milk by being soluble in ether. 

Gaseine. — This is the nitrogenous constituent of milk. In 
regard to this portion of the milk, the remark should first be 
made that it is not perfectly homogeneous — that is to say, 
there are at least two distinct chemical substances comprised 
by the nitrogenous portion of milk. 

There is caseine proper, and also albumen — that is to say, 
a certain proportion of the nitrogenous substance is coagu- 
lated on boiling milk, but the major part of the nitrogenous 
substance is not coagulated on boiling. Whether the portion 
of nitrogenous substance which is not coagulated on boiling 
is itself homogeneous, is even a matter of some doubt. In a 
corresponding case — that of flour — we know that the nitro- 
genous constituent is a very complex mixture, and that, under 
the name of gluten, a whole tribe of substances are compre- 
hended. Under the name of caseine it will be convenient to 
designate the entire nitrogenous constituents of milk ; just 
as, under the name gluten, the entire nitrogenous portion of 
flour is comprehended. Like albumen, caseine exists under 
two modifications — it is either soluble or insoluble. In the 
former of these states it exists in fresh milk ; in the latter, 
after the milk has "turned." 

It used to be believed thai the soluble variety of caseine 
was in reality a salt caseine, wherain caseine played the part 
of acid, and the alkali naturally present in milk-ash played 
the part of base. The coagulation or curdling of milk was 
explained on the supposition that lactic acid, generated by 



10 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

incipient fermentation of the milk-sugar, decomposed tliis 
hypothetical compound, and threw down insoluble caseine. 

This explanation must be abandoned, inasmuch as inves- 
tigation has shown that the ash of milk is almost absolutely 
devoid of alkali. In truth, we are driven to the conclusion, 
that the change from soluble to insoluble caseine is molecu- 
lar, resembling the change from soluble silica to insoluble 
silica. 

The ultimate composition of caseine is not distinguishable 
from that of albumen and fibrine, viz. — 

Carbon 53.7 

Hydrogen 7.1 

Nitrogen 15.7 

Oxygen 23.5 

100.0 

There is likewise a trace of sulphur, said to be about one 
per cent. In milk the caseine is chemically combined with 
phosphate of lime ; and there is no known method of eifect- 
ing a separation between the two without destroying the 
caseine. 

Milk is coagulated — that is to say, the caseine is rendered 
insoluble — by the action of rennet, of acid, and of many 
metallic salts. 

Caseine which has become insoluble in water is redis- 
eolved by alkalis, and also by solution of phosphate of soda. 

Milk-sugar, CioH.^aOuH.O. — This substance may be ob- 
tained from milk by coagulating the caseine and removing 
that along with the fat, and then evaporating the residual 
liquid (or whey) to crystallization. The crystals are decol- 
orized by means of animal charcoal. It is distinguished 
from cane-sugar in various ways. 



INTHODUCTORY. 



11 



In composition. When dried at 100** Cent., milk-sugar 
has the formula as given above, viz., CioHo.OuHoO; cane- 
sugar, on the contrary, when dried at 100*' Cent., exhibits 
the composition Ci.Ho^On. Heated to about 140" Cent., 
milk-sugar loses an atom of water, and becomes CioH220u. 

In solubility in water there is much difference between the 
two. Milk-sugar dissolves in five or six parts of cold water 
and in two and a half parts of boiling water. Cane sugar, 
on the other hand, is far more soluble. It dissolves in one 
third of its volume of cold water, and in exceedingly little 
boiling water. 

Milk-sugar is not so heavy as cane-sugar, its specific 
gravity being 1,53 ; whilst cane-sugar has a specific gravity 
of 1.G06. 

Towards alkaline-copper-solution, the behavior of the 
two kinds of sugar is quite different; whereas milk-sugar 
reduces the oxide to the suboxide of copper even in the cold, 
solution of cane-sugar does not even effect a reduction on 
being heated to the boiling point of water. 

The Ash, or Mineral Matter. — When milk is dried up, and 
the dried residue afterwards incinerated, the ash remains 
behind. This consists mainly of phosphate of lime, which 
forms about two-thirds of it, and of chlorides. There is 
hardly any free or carbonated alkali in the ash of cow's 
milk. The degree of freedom of the ash from alkali may 
be judged of from the fact, ascertained by myself, that the 
ash does not neutralize as much standard acid as it would if 
one hundredth of its weight consisted of alkaline-carbonate. 

Such, then, are the component parts of milk. It remains 
to be added, that milk has a specific gravity of about 1.029, 
at 15.6 C, and that its physical appearance is very peculiar. 
It is not a clear liquid, being, in point of fact, an emulsion. 
Left to itself, it by and by becomes surmounted with a 
whitish layer, well known as cream . When fresh, it is very 



12 MILK-AISTALYSIS. 

nearly neutral to test-paper, but is very apt to turn sour 
from very slight causes. 

Milk exhibits great constancy of composition ; the effect of 
variations in the diet of the cow showing itself in the amount 
of the secretion rather than in its quality. This is very 
strikingly manifested on making a comparison of the milk 
yielded by the poor and ill-fed Bengali cow in India with 
that given by our own highly-fed beasts in this country. 
Dr. Macnamara's analyses of the milk of the Bengali cows 
show that it hardly differs from the milk of English cows in 
quality, whereas in quantity it differs greatly, the yield of 
milk from the former being a small fraction only of that 
from the latter. The milk of an animal has probably very 
much the same constancy of composition as the blood of the 
animal. It is well known that, by administering water to an 
animal, we are not able to dilute its blood to any considerable 
extent. Instead of telhng on the blood, the water tells on 
the perspiration or on the urine, so that from containing four 
or five per cent, of solids, the urine may become so dilute as 
to contain only one per cent, of solids. The milk resembles 
the blood in this respect, and is in contrast with the urine ; 
and by giving an animal an excess of water we do not dilute 
its milk, but its urine. 

As will be readily comprehended, this constancy of com- 
position is a cardinal fact in milk analysis. If milk were 
variable in strength, as urine is, chemical analysis would fail 
to detect the watering of milk. That milk is a secretion of 
constant, or only slightly varying composition, lies at the 
very root of the subject of this treatise. 

In Chapter IX., on " The Milk ^vpply of the London 
Worhliouses^'' the experimental evidence bearing upon this 
question is minutely entered into. 



CHAPTER 11. 

INSTEUMENTS AND METHODS FOR TESTING MILK — OUTLINE 
OF MILK-ANALYSIS. 

The lactometer, or lactodensimeter, as it has been called, to 
distinguish it from another simple instrument, the cream- 
ometer, was at one time a great favorite. In France, a few 
years ago, if not indeed now, the police would take action 
at once on a reading of that instrument, and turn milk out 
into the gutter if it were condemned. And in Loudon, the 
lactometer is exposed for sale in shop windows, and both the 
public and milk dealers trust to it. Even in some recent 
manuals intended for the guidance of medical officers of 
health, the use of the lactometer is recommended. In one 
of them in particular — Dr, Edward Smith's — which claims a 
sort of pseudo-government sanction, the lactometer is very 
prominently put forward, and commended as being for milk 
what the hydrometer is for alcoholic fluids. 

But, although it is so very popular, and although it has 
been so implicitly trusted, the lactometer is a most untrust- 
worthy instrument. There hardly ever was an instrument 
which has so utterly failed as the lactometer. It confounds 
together milk which is exceptionally rich with milk which 
has been largely watered ; and many a poor French peasant, 
bringing the best and unadulterated produce of his dairy into 
a French toAvn, has been ruthlessly stopped by the police, who 
have dipped their lactometer into the milk, and forthwith 
sent it down the gutter, as if it had been milk and water. 



14 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

Very curious things, too, are done in this country by reason 
of trust in the lactometer. There is a prison not far from 
London, and the prison authorities are specially particular 
about their supply of milk. They allow no milk to enter the 
prison unless it comes up to the M. mark on a certain lac- 
tometer. The M. mark is pitched very high, and the milk 
purveyor reaches the M. mark by skimming the milk. 

A very little consideration will suffice to make intelligible 
the obliquity of the indications of the lactometer, and to show 
how untrustworthy it must be. The lactometer, as of course 
will be understood, is simply the hydrometer applied to milk ; 
and readings of the instrument are neither more nor less 
than specific gravities. The more milk-sugar and caseine 
and mineral matter there is in a given specimen of milk, the 
greater (other things being equal) will be its density or 
specific gravity, and the higher the lactometer reading. 

If, however, fat globules (as happens in the instance of 
milk) be diffused through the fluid, then, because fat is 
lighter than water, the effect of the other milk solids on the 
gravity of the liquid will be more or less neutralized. The 
density of milk-fat is about 0.9, water being 1.0. Now, if a 
solution of caseine and milk-sugar, of specific gravity 1.030, 
be sufficiently charged with fat globules, its specific gravity 
may be sent down even below the gravity of water. How 
much would be required to bring about such a result is a 
matter of simple calculation. 

This being understood, it will be obvious, that if the speci- 
mens of milk differ in specific gravity, there must be two 
distinct and equally valid ways of accounting for the differ- 
ence. The milk with the lower gravity may be milk let 
down with water, or let down with fat, i. e., milk let down 
by being enriched. 

By way of example, I Avould just refer to the sjDCcific 
gravity of the so-called strippings, which are the last portions 



OUTLINE OF MILK-AITALYSIS. 15 

of milk wrung out of the udder at tlie termination of the 
milking. These are richer in cream than the average mass 
of the milk, and they have a much lower density than 
average milk. 

I have myself examined strippings with a specific gravity 
of l.O^Oj and a specific gravity of 1.025 is by no means un- 
common. In the instance of strippings of the latter gravity, 
I found the percentage of solids to be 18.74. 

Now, if we all knew concerning a sample of milk was that 
its gravity was 1.025, we might with equal reasonableness 
conclude, either that it contained fifteen or twenty per cent, 
of extraneous water, or that it was surcharged with cream. 

If, by adding fat to milk, the specific gravity is lowered, it 
follows that by substracting fat {i. e., by skimming), the 
specific gravity is raised ; and hence the explanation of the 
reaching of the high M. mark by skimming, 

A certain trick of the milk trade is fostered by the employ- 
ment of the lactometer. The milk is partially denuded of 
cream (accomplished conveniently by adding a certain quan- 
tity of skimmed milk to the fresh milk), and thereby raised 
in gravity. That being accomplished, it is dosed with water, 
and its gravity is thereby lowered to the normal standard. 

Let no one think that he would discover such a trick by 
making an estimation of cream ; for watered milk throws 
up its fat in the form of cream more perfectly than unwatered 
milk. 

Another objection relative to the lactometer (which, how- 
ever, pertains to the application of the hydrometer to organic 
fluids generally) is drawn from the circumstance that a com- 
paratively small change in density coriesponds to a great 
change in composition. Making total abstraction of the 
difficulty and uncertainty dependent on the cream, and re- 
garding milk as a solution of caseine and milk-sugar, it will 
be seen that whereas the specific gravity of water rises only 



16 MILK- ANALYSIS. 

from 1.000 to 1.032 in passing into milk, tlie water receives 
9.2 per cent, of milk solids. In other words, while the 
density goes up only three per cent., the solids go up nine 
per cent. It is, therefore, disadvantageous to estimate rise 
in solid content by rise in density. Mineral substances, 
when they dissolve in water, raise the density far more 
rapidly than organic substances. The contrast in this re- 
spect is very well shown when chloride of potassium is com- 
pared with milk solids. Thus, a ten per cent, solution of 
chloride of potassium has a specific gravity of 1.065 at 15° 
Cent., whereas a ten per cent, solution of caseine and milk- 
sugar has a specific gravity of about 1.035. 

To be of any value at all, a specific gravity determination 
in the case of such a fluid as milk must be taken with ex- 
treme accuracy ; and, as is well known, the taking of specific 
gravities with great accuracy is not by any means one of the 
most facile of operations, and is certainly not easier than the 
taking of solid residues directly. 

From a careful consideration of the whole subject, I am 
convinced that one of the most necessary steps to be taken 
in milk analysis is to abandon the use of the lactom- 
eter. 

The creaynometer is a graduated tube, in which milk is 
allowed to stand and throw up cream, the volume of which 
is afterwards to be read. 

It is, of course, unnecessary for the graduation to be 
continued throughout the whole extent of the tube. If the 
graduation be prolonged only for the uppermost fifteen per 
cent., that will be amply sufficient for all practical pur- 
poses — vide fig. 

Normal milk yields about ten per cent, of cream ; but 
that is subject to great irregularity, and a milk may yield 
very much less without having been tampered with, or it 
may yield the ten per cent., and, nevertheless, have been 



OUTLINE OF MTLK-ANALrSIS. 



17 



tampered with. As will be explained in tlie chapter de- 
voted to cream, that fluid is subject to great variations in 
richness. The creamometer is at best a treacherous guide. 
In addition to the lactometer and the 
creamometer, there is likewise an instrument, 
the indications of which depend upon the de- 
gree of opacity produced by the fat globules. 
It is an instrument which I have never tried, 
and which, indeed, does not promise much. 

The only really safe and satisfactory manner 
of examining milk is by means of an analysis 
of it. This used to be considered a long and 
tedious, and little satisfactory operation. By 
the aid of a few simple devices, milk analysis 
may be very much simplified. The first step 
to be taken is to determine the milk solids, 
and, of course, the water, which is the difi'er- 
ence between the solids and the quantity of 
milk which yields them. The detail of this 
operation will be given in next chapter. After 
having determined the milk solids, the fat is 
next to be determined. If the amount of fat 
be subtracted from the amount of milk solids, the amount of 
*' solids not fat" will be arrived at. A knowledge of this 
datum is (as will be explained) sufficient to enable a judg- 
ment to be come to as to whether or not the sample of milk 
has been watered. 

As a rule, an examination of milk, which has proceeded 
thus far, is complete. If only watering or skimming, or 
both, had taken place, the examination would have been 
ample. 

The determinations of caseine and of milk-sugar are use- 
ful when the question arises of other possible adulteration. 
The determination of ash is made with a view of ascertaining 



18 MILK- ANALYSIS. 

the presence of extraneous mineral matter. It has the merit 
of being very easy of execution. A highly-watered milk 
will obviously, as one of its characters, show too low an ash. 
In the following chapters w^e shall describe in detail the 
method of arriving at each of these data. 



CHAPTEE III. 

MILK-SOLIDS. 

The first step in dealing witli a sample of milk is to insure 
that it is thoroughly mixed up. This is most conveniently 
done by pouring it from one vessel to another ; and it is 
essential to attend to this particular in order to avoid getting 
either too much or too little cream — that is to say, either a 
greater or less proportion than the sample really contains. 
It is also well, in this preliminary stage of the inquiry, to 
make out whether the milk be sour or not, and whether or 
not it be curdled. If very sour, there is of course a chance 
of destruction of some of the organic material, and the de- 
gree of acidity in such a case ought to be measured by means 
of standard solution of alkali. If the milk be curdled, care 
will also have to be taken to avoid an unequal distribution 
of the caseine ; and in cases of this kind, I do not like to use 
the pipette for measuring off the quantity of milk, but I pre- 
fer to weigh out the quantity of milk taken for analysis. 




Assuming that the milk is fresh and in good condition, it 
may be measured in a small pipette — vide fig. 

The quantity taken for analysis is five cubic centimetres. 
Pipettes for the discharge of 5 c. c. may be purchased of 
Messrs. Townson & Mercer, who supply them graduated very 
satisfactorily. The pipette should be accurate, within -^-^-^ of a 
cubic centimetre; and should be tested by being charged with 



20 MILK-ANALTSIS. 

water, and discliarged into a counterpoised beaker or flask, 
which, with its contents, is to be weighed. The discharged water 
should not differ from 5 grammes by more than 0.02 grammes. 
In order to be able to take milk-solids, the experimenter 
requires — 

1. A balance. 

2. Small plathium dishes. 

3. Water bath. 

4. Pipette. 

If a good chemical balance and weights be at hand, so 
much the better. If not, and the question arise relative to 
the least practicable expenditure in the matter of balance, 
the following information may possibly be acceptable. 

I have seen a balance made by Becker & Sons, of New 
York, and Kruiskady, Rotterdam,* which indicates two milli- 
grammes quite distinctly when loaded with fifty grammes, and 
which costs £2. This balance, which is No. 14 on Messrs. 
Becker & Sons' published catalogue, will answer very well. 
For weights, it is essential to have a good set, and the box 
costing 30s. will be required. 

If 5 c. c. of milk be taken, it will be obvious that an error 
of five milligrammes equals 0.1 gramme per 100 c. c. ; and 
with a balance and weights and pipette, such as just men- 
tioned, there should be no difficulty in getting determina- 
tions of residue which are not more than a few hundredths 
per cent, oft' the truth. The evaporation to dryness is most 
conveniently performed in a small platinum dish weighing 
some twelve grammes, and of the size figured. 

If there be many milks to examine, it will be well to have 
a set of the little dishes (which cost 14s. a piece, and which 
are numbered on the lip). The dishes are to be cleaned and 

* Mr. Henry Gillraan, 143 Brecknock Eoad, London, N., is sole 
agent in England. 



MILK-SOLIDS. 



21 



weighed, and the weights noted down ; they will alter in 
weight only very slowly, and even if in active use, require 
reweighing only every now and then. 




The dishes are conveniently heated in an oblong copper 
bath, with round holes cut in the top to receive them. The 
bath should be some six inches deep, and is charged with 
water. It is conveniently supported on a tripod, and heated 
with a Bunsen burner. 

The dishes having been weighed, placed in order in the 



bath, and each one having received its charge of 5 



of 



milk, the water in the bath is to be made to boil vigorously, 
and maintained boiling for three hours. At the expiration of 
that period the 5 c. c. of milk in each dish will have com- 
pletely dried up. Each dish, with its contents, is removed 
from the bath, its outside is wiped, and itself and contents 
forthwith weighed. 

The weight of the dish subtracted from the weight of con- 
joined dish and contents leaves the weight of the milk-solids 
given by the 5 c. c. of milk. By multiplying that weight by 
20, the yield from 100 c. c. of milk is arrived at If care "be 
taken in this operation, results may be obtained which differ 
from one another by only a small figure in the second 
decimal place in percentage. 



*Sl MILK-ANALYSIS. 

When I first Trorked tliis process, I employed a pipette 
wliich discharged, not 5 c. c, but 5 grammes of milk, of 
average density ; and in that way obtained results which, 
multiplied by 20, expressed percentage. I have, however, 
come to the conclusion, that it is better to express the result, 
not exactly in percentage, but in grammes yielded by 100 
c. c. of milk, and that mode of statement I am now in the 
habit of adopting. 

As before said, if the milk be curdled, it is not well to use 
the pipette, and to take the 5 c. c, but to weigh out an 
irregular quantity of the milk (about 5 grammes), and dry 
it up. 

The following examples will serve to illustrate the degree 
of accuracy easily attainable by this process. 

A sample of good country milk was submitted to the 
process four times, with the following results: — 



MILK. 



I. 4.969 grammes gave 
11. 5.0105 

III. 5.007 

IV. 5.0145 



MILK-SOLIDS. 

O.GIG grammes. 

0.6255 

0.623 

0.626 



Expressed in percentage, this is equivalent to- 



MILK. 




MILK- 


SOLIDS. 


100 grammes 


gave . 


12.40 


grammes 


u u 


u 


12.48 


a 


a u 


it. 


12.44 


(( 


(( u 


a 


12.48 


(< 


and the mean 


• 


12.45 


u 



MILK- SOLIDS. 



23 



A specimen of rich town-fed milk yielded in four experi- 
ments — 



I. 5.000 grammes gave 
11. 5.004 ' " 

III. 5.000 

IV. 5.006 

Or in percentage — 



MILK. 

100 grammes gave 

(( u u 

il II li 

II a a 

and the mean, 



MILK-SOLIDS. 

0.7035 grammes. 

0.705 

0.7025 

0.705 " 



MILK-SOLIDS. 

14.07 grammes. 

14.09 

14.05 " 

14.08 

14.07 



These are not exceptionally carefully done, and only 
illustrate the degree of accuracy which is attainable by the 
most ordinary care. 

In conclusion, it remains to add, that such results are not 
to be expected if the residues be weighed before the expiration 
of the prescribed time — viz., the three hours — and that the 
water in the bath must be kept boiling vigorously the whole 
time. By prolonging the drying for a second period of three 
hours, no sensible diminution takes place in the milk-solids. 

The employment of plaster of paris or sand (both of which 
have been recommended for the purpose of rendering milk 
residues porous), is to be avoided. When only five cubic cen- 
timetres of milk are taken, as has been recommended in this 
chapter, it is likewise unnecessary to stir up the milk during 
the evaporation and drying. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

THE FAT. 

The fat in milk is estimated by dissolving it in ether (wLicli 
dissolves it, but does not dissolve any other constituent of 
milk), and evaporating the ethereal solution to dryness, and 
weighing the dried residue. It is not practicable to apply 
the ether directly to the milk itself, but the ether must be 
applied to the dry milk-solids. 

The residue obtained, as described in last chapter, by 
evaporating and drying up 5 c. c. of milk, may be taken for 
the determination of the fat. 

This residue, as will be understood, is contained in a small 
platinum dish. Ether is to be poured into the dish, and 
heated to the boiling point, and poured out through a small 
filter. This operation of boiling and pouring off the ethereal 
solution must be repeated at least three times, and care is 
required to let none of the fat make its escape over the 
bottom of the dish. The filter should be large enough to 
avoid the chance of spilling the ethereal solution as it is 
being poured on to the filter. It is advisable to wash the 
bottom of the little platinum dish with ether, in order to 
avoid all chance of loss. Attention must also be paid to the 
filter-paper after tlie ether has passed through it. Of course 
it will require washing with ether ; and after the residual 
ether has evaporated ofl', will be found with a little rim of fat 
surmounting it. This is best dealt with by cutting it otf, 
and macerating it with a fresh portion of ether, which may 
then be rapidly poured through a second small filter. In 



THE FAT. 25 

order to facilitate the solution of tlie fat, the railk residue 
may be first moistened with alcohol, which will tend to dis- 
integrate it, and favor the action of the ether upon it. 

AVith regard to the quality of the ether employed, it 
should be tolerably dry ; but it may be methylated ether. 
Of course it should leave no appreciable residue when 50 c. 
c. of it are evaporated and dried in the water-bath. The 
cost of such ether is about 16s. per gallon, and the cost of 
the ether consumed in each determination of fat is not more 
than twopence. I would, however, give the advice to be 
liberal with the ether; for it is false economy to ruin the 
determination for the sake of saving ether. 

As will be apparent on trying practically to make these 
determinations of fat, the yield from 5 c. c. of milk is rather 
inconveniently small. I prefer to take 10 c. c. of milk, and 
to evaporate down in a larger platinum dish. A dish capable 
of holding 40 c. c, which costs about 30s., will answer very 
well. A small platinum spatula may be inserted into the 
milk, and used to stir it up occasionally during the evapo- 
ration. In this instance, it is unnecessary to push the drying 
of the milk-solids to completeness, and an hour's evapora- 
tion in the water- bath is amply sufficient for the purpose. 
Just at last, the milk residue should be moistened with 
alcohol to soften it. The mode of dissolving out the fat with 
ether, and the passing of the ethereal solution through the 
filter, and the subsequent treatment of the residual rim of 
fat in the filter paper, has been already explained. 

The ethereal solution of fat having been obtained (and, by 
the way, it ought never to be less than 50 c. c), the next 
point to be attended to is the evaporation of the ether, and 
the getting of the residue of fat. 

In laboratories where there is a platinum dish capable of 
holding 100 c. c, such as is used in taking water residues, 



26 



MILK-ANALYSIS. 



that may be employed for the purpose of containing the 
solution. 

The dish having been weighed, is charged with the 
ethereal solution, and placed in warm water, whereupon tlie 
evaporation of the ether may be made to proceed gently. 
As the evaporation approaches its termination, a change 
will be visible in the aspect of the solution. It will become 
turbid, owing to the trace of water and small quantity of 




alcohol, which gradually predominate over the ether, being 
incapable of dissolving the fat. When this stage is reached, 
the dish should be transferred to the water-bath, and heated 
to 100° C. After being maintained at 100^ C. for a short 
time, the solution will again become clear, owing to the 
evaporation of the trace of water and alcohol. When this 
clearness has come on, the fat is dry, and the dish may be 
removed from the bath, wiped, cooled, and, along with its 
contents, weighed. The weight of the empty dish being 
subtracted, the difference is the weight of the fat yielded by 
the milk. This multiplied by 10 or 20, as the case may be, 
gives the number of grammes of fat yielded by 100 c. c. of 
milk. 



THE FAT. 27 

If it be desired to recover the ether, the evaporation may 
be managed in a small retort — vide fig. 

In such a case, the empty retort should be first weighed, 
and subsequently the retort charged with the dry fat is to 
be weighed. It will further be necessary to send a stream 
of dry air through the retort towards the end of the opera- 
tion 

I do not, however, think that a saving of two or three 
pence, the value of the ether, is a sufficient inducement to 
cause the analyst to complicate his apparatus. The avoid- 
ance of disengagement of ether vapor into the laboratory 
may, however, under some circumstances, be a reason for 
adopting an arrangement of this description. 

In general, a milk analysis is complete when milk solids 
and fat have been taken. If the latter be subtracted from 
the former, a very important datum— viz., milk-solids not 
fat — is arrived at. This datum, which is the most constant 
quantity in milk analysis, gives, by a very simple calcula- 
tion, the extent of watering to which the milk has been 
subjected. 



CHAPTER y. 



CASEINE. 



TJnbeh the title of caseine— perhaps it woukl be better to 
say crude caseine — -I mean to designate the entire nitroge- 
nous material of milk. 

After the dry milk-solids have been got, and after the fat 
has been washed out of them by means of ether, as was ex- 
plained at length in the last chapter, there remain behind the 
caseine, the milk-sugar, and the ash. By extracting with 
strong alcohol, and ultimately adding a little boiling water, 
so as in effect to extract, with very weak hot alcohol, the 
milk-sugar and the soluble part of the ash, i. e, the chlorides, 
will pass into solution. The caseine which remains behind 
is washed off the filter-paper into a little platinum dish, and 
dried up in the water-bath till it ceases to lose weight. It 
is weighed along with the containing vessel, and then ig- 
nited, and the weight of the vessel and adherent ash (phos- 
phate of lime) subtracted from it. As has been already 
remarked, the phosphate of lime exists really in a state of 
chemical combination with the caseine in milk. The quan- 
tity of milk recommended for the estimation of fat —viz., 10 
grammes — is suitable for the determination of the caseine. 
Of course, if the product of the operation be multiplied by 
10, the quantity of caseine yielded by 100 c. c. of milk will 
be arrived at. 

Another method of procedure, which is very generally 
recommended, but which I do not like so well as that just 
described, consists in taking a considerable quantity of milk 



CASEINE. ZU 

— say 50 or 100 c. c. of milk — and, without any preliminary 
evaporation to dryness, precipitating the caseine, which is to 
be washed with water, alcohol, and ether, and then to be 
dried and weighed. The precipitation is effected by warm- 
ing the milk, and acidulating it with almost any common 
acid ; either hydrochloric or sulphuric, or even ascetic acid 
will do. As aforesaid, I do not like that modification so well 
as the one first given. 

A very difi'erent method of determining caseine in milk 
consists in measuring it by the albuminoid ammonia which 
it is capable of furnishing. This is certainly the quickest 
process, and is very satisfactory. 

In order to practise it, the milk must first be diluted with 
a known volume of water, so that one volume of dilute milk 
may contain accurate y y^o of a volume of milk. This is 
conveniently accomplished by measuring out with the pipette 
10 c. c. of milk, and dropping it into the litre flask, which is 
subsequently filled up to the litre mark. Or, of course, 5 
c. e. of milk may be diluted to 5;J0 c c. 

It is not necessary to use distilled water for the purpose, 
inasmuch as the error introduced by ordinary river or town 
wa!er is inappreciable. The quantity of the diluted milk 
which is required for experiment is 5 or 10 cubic centimetres, 
equivalent to y^-^ or y\yO^ of a cubic centimetre of real milk. 

The mode of operation is as follows : — - 

Ten grammes of solid potash and 0.4 gramme of crystals 
of permanganate of potash are boiled with about half a litre 
of water, the whole being contained by a retort provided 
with a tubulure, and connected with a Liebig's condenser. 
The liquid is allowed to distil, and successive portions of 
distillate tested for ammonia. So soon as water begins to 
distil over in a state of freedom from ammonia, the portion of 
diluted milk is to be introduced into the retort through the 
tubulure. 



30 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

The distillates which s^ibsequently come over are charged 
with the ammonia arising from the destruction of the 
caseine. 

The ammonia is to be measured by means of the Nessler 
test, which is now very well known. The details of the meas- 
urement of ammonia will be understood by all persons who 
are in the habit of working the water process of Wanklyn, 
Chapman, and Smith, and it is unnecessary to enter into 
them here. 

Every one part by weight of caseine gives, treated in this 
manner, 0.065 part of ammonia. The yield of " albuminoid 
ammonia " from 100 c. o. of genuine milk is 0.26 gram- 
mes. 

It is only by persons who work the ammonia process of 
water-analysis, and only in laboratories where arrangements 
are made for that process, that the convenience of this deter- 
mination of caseine will be appreciated. 



CHAPTEE VI. 



MILK-SUGAK. 



After the milk-solids have been deprived of fat by means 
of ether, as explained in Chapter IV., they may be made to 
yield up the milk-sugar, if they be treated with alcohol 
and hot water. This has been explained in the preceding 
chapter. 

It remains here to follow the weak alcoholic solution after 
its passage through the filter on which the caseine had been 
deposited. The solution is to be evaporated to dryness in the 
water-bath, and the residue adherent to the vessel in which 
the evaporation is performed, is to be weighed along with 
its containing vessel. 

That having been done, it is ignited gently, and the residue 
on ignition subtracted from the total weight before ignition. 
The difference is the yield of milk-sugar. Multiply this by 
10, and the number of grammes of milk-sugar yielded by 100 
cubic centimetres of milk is found. With some chemists, a 
titration of milk-sugar, by means of copper solution, is in great 
favor. For this purpose 50 or 60 c. c. of milk are gently 
warmed and mixed with a little acetic acid in order to pre- 
cipitate the caseine, which is separated by means of a filter. 
The filtrate is used in the titration in the following manner: — 
It is first diluted with nine times its volume of water, so that 
one litre contains the milk-sugar of 100 c. c. of milk. A 
measured quantity of standard copper-solution is then placed 
in a white basin, and diluted with four times its volume of 
water, and heated to boiling. Into it, whilst boiling, is 



32 



MILK-ANALYSIS. 



dropped the above-mentionel diluted milk, previously acid- 
ulated and filtered. As the dilute milk drops from a 
burette, it instantly reduces the boiling copper-solution, whicli 
deposits red oxide of copper. The dropping is to be con- 
tinued until the boiling copper-solution ceases to be reduced — 
until it is exhausted. The point of exhaustion is determined 
rotujhlij, by observing when the blue color leaves the solu- 
tion, and finely, by observing the exact point at vf^hich 
ferrocyanide of potassium ceases to strike a red color with 
the filtered solution, which must be slightly acidulated with 
acetic acid before being tested with the ferrocyanide. The 
standard copper-solution is prepared by dissolving 34. G5 
grammes of crystals of sulphate of copper in 200 c. c. oi 
water. To this solution is added a solution made by dissolv- 
ing 173 grammes of double tartrate of potash and soda in 
480 c. c. of caustic soda solution, of specific gravity 1.14. 
The whole is diluted till it occupies the volume of one litre. 

The standard solution, so prepared, is of such a strength 
that 10 c. c. are ec|uivalent to 0.007 grammes of milk-sugar 
(dry at 100° C) 

I am not in the habit of using this process, but without 
doubt it is occasionally of value. 



CHAPTER VII. 



ASH. 



If tlie milk-solids be ignited, the organic matter is de- 
stroyed, and the inorganic matter or ash remains behind. 
The operation is managed in a very simple manner. The 
small platinum dish containing the miilk-solids from 5 c. c. 
of milk is placed on a small triangle, either of platinum, or 
of iron- wire, or of iron-wire covered with tobacco-pipe. The 
last mentioned is an admirable form of support, and is very 
well known to chemists. The flame, either of a spirit-lamp, 
or of a Bunsen burner, is then made to play upon the plati- 
num dish. By and by the organic matter is burnt up, and 
a grey ash remains behind. The platinum dish and its con- 
tents are then allowed to cool, and weighed. After subtract- 
ing the weight of the dish, the weight of the ash remains. 
This, multiplied by 20, equals the number of grammes of 
ash or mineral matter contained by 100 c. c. of milk. 

The importance of a determination of ash depends upon 
the fact that the correctness of it at once answers the ques- 
tion whether or not the milk has been adulterated with 
chalk, salt, or other inorganic impurity. I have made hun- 
dreds of determinations of ash, and not yet come across a 
single case of adulteration of this kind. 

As will be seen on looking back, the quantity of ash con- 
tained by 100 c. c of milk is between 0.7 and 0.8 grammes. 
Now, suppose the milk to be watered — with, say London 
water. In such a case the ash would be diminished, inas- 



34 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

mucli as 100 c. c. of London water contains only 0.03 gram- 
mes of mineral matter, whilst 100 c. c. of milk contains 0.73 
grammes of mineral matter. Watering will, therefore, be 
indicated by diminished ash ; and in cases of watering, it is 
worth while to make a careful determination of ash as a 
sort of confirmatory test. 



CHAPTER YIII. 

CALCULATION AND STATE:MENT OF RESULTS. 

TnuouGHouT tlie foregoing chapters, the mode of state- 
ment recommended has been to reckon the milk by measure 
in cubic centimetres, and the products — -the noiilk-solids or 
fat, &c — in grammes. This form of statement will be found 
to be the most convenient, involving, as it does, the least 
possible calculation. 

Occasionally, however, as in the case of sour milk, we are 
compelled to weigh the milk instead of measuring it. 

In such a case, a simple calculation will reduce the per- 
centage statement into a statement in the prescribed form, 
i. e., of how many grammes are yielded by 100 c. c. of milk. 
If the specific gravity of the sample of milk be known, the 
reduction consists in simply multiplying by the specific grav- 
ity ; if the specific gravity be unknown, the milk should be 
assumed to be of average specific gravity, viz., 1.029, and 
the calculation made accordingly. 

In milk-analysis there are two kinds of statement in use, 
viz , percentage statement — how much of any constituent of 
milk is contained by 100 parts of milk ; and the other kind 
of statement, how many grammes of any constituent are 
contained by 100 cubic centimetres of milk. Inasmuch as 
100 c. c. of average milk weighs 102.9 grammes, this second 
statement approximates to a statement of parts per 102.9 
parts. 

In the next chapter, which is a reprint from the Chemical 



36 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

JVews, tlie form of statement is percentage, and tlie various 
data would be reduced to the other measure by multiplica- 
tion by 1.0:29. 

Having cleared away any confusion arising from this 
slight ditlerence in scale, we pass on to consider the practical 
use to be made of the vaiious data afforded by milk -analysis. 

As will be remembered, 100 c. c. of milk of average qual- 
ity contains 12.81 grammes of milk-solids. Yery rich — ex- 
ceptionally rich — stall-fed milk contains 14.47 grammes of 
milk-solids. Now, it must be obvious to every one, that 
very rich milk, let down with a little water, will stimulate 
milk of average quality. 

There is a certain limit below which the milk of well-fed 
cows is never known to fall. Below 11.8 grammes of solids 
per 100 c. c, milk has not been known to fall. 

The most variable constituent of milk is the fat ; and if 
the quantity of fat be deducted from the milk-solids, the 
.'^ mil/i -solids not fat,''^ which is a very constant datum, is 
obtained. Takino- the milk-solids in countrv milk, and de- 



ducting the fat from it, there remains 9.65, which is the 
"milk-solids not fat." Similarly, the ^^milk-solids 7iol/at^' 
in stall-fed milk amount to 10.35 grammes per 100 c. c. 

The best way of dealing with the question of watering is 
to assume a perfectly rigid standard of normal milk, and to 
treat all departures from it as sophistications. Normal 
country milk is of such a strength, that 100 c. c. contains 
9.65 grammes of caseine, milk-sugar, and ash together — that 
is to say, of /nilk-solids not j at. 

In one centimetre of normal milk, there is therefore -^"^^ 
grammes oi milk-solids not fat. 

In order to find how much genuine milk there is in 100 
c. c. of a given saujple of milk, the rule is, therefore, to divide 
the number of grammes of the aolids not fat by 0.965. 

In the next chapter the subject is still further developed. 



CHAPTEB IX. 

THE MILE-StPrLY OF THE LONDON WOEKHOrSES. 

Hating Lad occasion to examine a large number of specimens 
of milk during the year 1871, 1 have made some observations 
on the subject, which, j^ossibly, may not be deemed to be 
unworthy of the attention of those chemists who may have 
a like task before them. 

The two common forms of malpractice which occur in the 
milk-trade are — the practice of removing the cream from the 
milk, and the practice of diluting the milk with water; and 
the testing of milk resolves itsolf into the detection of skim- 
ming and watering, and the measurement of the extent to 
which these operations have been carried. 

The possibility of detecting whether or not a specimen of 
milk has undergone impoverishment, depends obviously on 
the possibility of assigning a normal composition to milk, or, 
at any rate, on the possibility of fixing limits beyond which 
the composition of milk does not vary. 

From the observations of Alexander Miiller and Eisen- 
stuck, who carried out an investigation for the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society of Sweden, it appears that the milk 
yielded by a herd of cows remains very constant in composi- 
tion throughout the year. A daily analysis of the milk given 
by fifteen cows, of different breeds, but uniformly wtll~fed, 
exhibited the percentage of solids in the milk as never once, 



38 



MILK-ANALYSIS. 



during the entire year, having fallen so low as 11.5. The 
highest percentage of soUcls was 14.08. Only four times 
during the year did the sohds fall below 12 per cent. The 
average was 12.8 per cent. 

My own observations, made on an entirely different plan, 
fully bear out the statement, that cows' milk does not fall so 
low as 11.5 per cent, of solids, and seldom so low as 12 per 
cent. 

The following analysis may be published : — 



Date. 


DESEirXION. 


Percentages. 


Cream. 


Solids dry 
at 100° C. 


Ash. 


I. 17 Feb. 1871 

II. 18 Feb. 1871 

HI. 21 Feb. 1871 

IV. 
y 

VI. 
VII. 
VIII. March 1871 
IX. 

X. April 1871 


D. R. 
D. R. 

Cambridgeshire. 

Surrey. 

Herts. 

Essex. 

Essex. 
Councry milk. 
Town-fed milk. 
Alderney milk. 


10 

"ic"' 
11 
11 
11 

'"9.8 

13.0 
11.5 


12.24 
12.04 
12 28 
12 22 
13 'O8 
11.80 
14.34 
12 45 
14 07 
12.05 


0.7G 
0.08 

*6*7i' 

0.74 
0.70 



The first two specimens, named D. E,., were specimens 
of milk bought from milk-dealers believed to be perfectly 
honest. The next five specimens were samples of milk pro- 
duced on farms in the different counties named in the table. 
Specimen VIII. is a sample taken by myself, out of some 
fifty or sixty gallons of milk fresh from the country. Taken 
altogether, the ten analyses represent the composition of an 
immense quantity and of a great variety of milk, and sup- 
port the conclusion arrived at in Sweden by Midler and 
Eisenstuck. 



MILK- SUPPLY OF LONDON WORKHOUSES. 39 

Before leavlnf^ tlie subject of the normal composition of 
milk, it is right to refer to the laborious investigation by 
Goppelsroder {vide " Yerhandlungen der Naturforschenden 
Gessellschaft in Basel," 18GG), which, at first sight, would 
seem to be in opposition to the above. 

In reference to Goppelsroder's paper, the remark should 
first be made, that that chemist does not appear to deny that 
the solid residue in the milk of a herd of cows keeps con- 
stantly above the level just indicated. The point which he 
insists upon is, that the milk of a single cow sometimes falls 
in richness below the normal level, and observations are 
cited in suppoit of this statement. An examination of the 
results given in his paper does not lead me to a similar 
conclusion. In his paper I find many determinations of the 
solids in milk believed to be unsophisticated. Only four out 
of the entire number fall below ll^ per cent. Now, it is 
obvious that, however constant milk may happen to be as a 
matter of fact, it must always be possible, by a sufficient 
multiplication of analyses, to exhibit an analysis showing the 
sample of milk as having a composition outside the normal 
limit of variation. In other words, there is such a thing as 
error of experiment, and the question to be asked respecting 
Goppelsroder' s four isolated cases of milk, showing less than 
VI per cent, of solids, is whether this divergence from the 
standard composition is real, or only an error of observation ? 
Two of these instances occur in Table I., at the begin- 
ning of the paper. Among eighteen samples of milk, 
yielded by a single cow in eighteen consecutive days, he finds 
one sample yielding 10.69 per cent, of solids, and another 
yielding 11.41 per cent, in the same table, Goppelsroder 
records the percentage of cream, nnd the specific gravity of 
the milk before and after skimming. It is remarkable that 
the two low percentages of solids are not accompanied by low 
yields of cream or low specific gravities. The former of the 



40 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

two (viz., the 10.69 per cent of solids) is accompanied by 10 
per cent, of cream, sp. gr. 1.0310 before skimming, and sp. 
gr. 1.0332 after skimming; the latter (viz., the 11.41 -pev 
cent, of solids) by 11.2 per cent, of cream, sp. gr. 1.032 before 
and sp. gr. 1.034 after skimming. The third instance of a too 
low solid contents is to be met with in Table III., being the 
evening milk given by the last of eight cows. Percentage of 
solids, 11.43 ; cream, 7.5 per cent. ; sp. gr. before skimming, 
1.0315; sp. gr. after skimming, 1.0335. In this instance 
the cream is indeed rather low, but then the effect of skim- 
ming on the specific gravity of the milk is considerable, and 
the specific gravity is high . 

It is perfectly true that if a little cream be removed from 
rich milk, and a little water (I believe it should be warm) 
be added to the milk, the creamometer and " lactodensimeter " 
may be cheated, so that there shall be want of correspondence 
between the indications of these instruments and the solids 
in the milk. But in the examples at present under discus- 
sion we are not dealing with skilfully sophisticated milk, but 
with milk in the natural condition as given by the cow. If 
the figures in tlie tables be correct, the cow must have, in 
these three instances, given milk not only abnormally poor 
in solids, but also in an abnormal physical condition, as if it 
had been manipulated by the fraudulent milk-dealer. 

The fourth case of abnormally low solids occurs in Table 
IV., being the milk of the third cow, which is recorded as 
containing 9.54 per cent, of solids. In this instance, unfor- 
tunately, the yield of cream is not given. The sp. gr. before 
skimming was 1.0279, but the sp. gr. after skimming is not 
given. I observe, moreover, that the next solid contents of 
the table is a misprint, viz., 3.7077 instead of 13.7077 (that 
it is a misprint is shown by the numbers for the ash, and 
the number given as the ratio of the ash to the total solids). 

I do not consider that Goppelsruder's four exceptional 



MILK-SrPPLY OF LONDON WOEKHOUSES. 



41 



cases are sufficiently well established ; and I consider it to be 
a well-establislied fact that the milk of a herd of cows in 
good condition always contains more than 11.5 per cent, of 
solids, and that single cows almost invariably (if not always) 
yield milk containing more than 11.5 per cent, of solids. 

In dealing with milk-supply on the large scale, we are 
little concerned with the possibility of single animals giving 
abnormal milk, and need only concern ourselves with milk 
of normal quality, all departures from the standard being 
looked upon as sophistications. 

The following, which is the result of several concordant 
analyses of country-fed milk, may be taken as representing 
normal milk. In 100 grms. of milk — 

Solids (dry at 100*^ C.) . . 12.5 grms. 
Water 87.5 " 



1(0.0 



The 12.5 grms. consist of 9.3 grms. of " solids which are 
not fat," and of 3.2 grins, of fat. 

If we consider the changes in composition which the addi- 
tion of water to milk will produce, it will be apparent that it 
must diminish the proportion of solids in the milk, whilst the 
effect of skimming is to diminish the proportion of fat, and 
to leave the proportion of " solids not fat " unaltered (or 
indeed, strictly speaking, to make a very trifling increase in 
the proportion of the " solids not fat"). 

Treating the question quite rigidl}^, which I believe is the 
proper way of dealing with it, we airive at the following: — 

ProbJeni I. — Given the percent ge of "solids not fat" 
(= a), in a specimen of sophisticated milk (?". e., milk either 
watered or skimmed, or both), — required the number of 
grammes of genuine milk which was employed to form 100 
grms. of it. 



42 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

Answer. — Multiply the percentage of "solids not fat" by 
100, and divide by 9.8. Or— 



100 



Problem II. — Griven the percentage of "solids not fat" 
(= a), also the percentage of fat (=^), in a specimen of 
sophisticated milk, — required the number of grammes of fat 
which have been removed by skimming from the genuine 
milk which was employed to form 100 grms. of it. 

3.2 

Answer. — ,. ~ « - ^ 



In translating fat into cream, the rule is that a removal 
of ().'! grm. of fat equals a removal of 1.0 grm. of cream. This 
rule is directly founded on experiment. I do not, however, 
claim a high degree of accuracy for the measurement of the 
cream. 

Finally, a slight refinement may be noticed. If a specimen 
of sophisticated milk has been produced by both skimming 
and watering, it will be obvious, on consideration, that the 
extraneous water employed in manufacturing 100 grms. of it, 
is equal to the difference between 100 and the quantity of 
genuine milk employed to make 100 grms. of sophisticated 
milk, together with a quantity of water equal to the fat re- 
moved by skimming. 

100 3.2 

Extraneous water = 100 a -] a-h 

9.3 9.3 

100 -f3.2 

::=100 a-b 

9.3 



MILK-SUPPLY OF LONDON WORKHOUSES. 43 

An investigation of the different milks supplied to the dif- 
ferent London Unions (which was made by me for the 
Government, at Mr. Eowsell's instance last year, and which 
is published in Mr. Eowsell's " Eeport on the System of Sup- 
ply of Provisions for the AVorkhouses of the Metropolis"), 
will furnish an illustration of this method of interpreting the 
results of milk-analysis. 

A sample of milk was procured from each workhouse by 
Mr. Eowsell at two different dates, and forwarded to me for 
analysis. The analysis of the earlier sample is marked I. in 
the following table, and that of the later sample is marked II. 
Samples were also forwarded to Dr. Letheby, who arrived at 
the same general results as myself; but either from his hav- 
ing slightly different specimens, or from employing different 
methods of analysis, his numbers sometimes exhibited some 
considerable departures from my own. There was, however, 
no difference in the practical effect of the two reports. 

On inspecting the table, it will be seen the milk from 
twenty-eight Unions is reported upon. A well-known met- 
ropolitan Union is conspicuous by its absence, and the report 
would not be complete unless it were recorded that the West- 
minster Union refused to furnish Mr. Eowsell with informa- 
tion and samples. 

Out of the fifty-six samples of milk only fifteen were 
unwatered, or nearly unwatered. Nine of these fifteen were 
skimmed, leaving only six that were at once unwatered and 
unskimmed. Accordingly about 10 per cent, of the milk 
supplied to London workhouses appears to be genuine. In 
the years 1871 and 1872, I examined about a thousand 
samples of milk bought in London for the Blllh Journal, 
and arrived at a similar conclusion as to the general condi- 
tion of the milk-trade in the metropolis {okle the Supple- 
ment to "Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry,'' article Milk- 
Analysis, p. 830). 



44 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

It is curious to compare the language of the contract under 
which (as appoars from Mr. Rowsell's report) the dealer sup- 
plied the various Unions with milk, with the quality of the 
article as exhibited by the analysis. "New unskimmed 
milk, unadulterated; " " Genuine as from the cow ; " "Best 
new unskimmed milk, to produce 10 per cent, of cream," 
occur in the contracts. 

The Fulham Union is distinguished from the rest by 
having a contract for " skim milk," the terms of the contract 
being " genuine, unadulterated milk, pure s/chn,^^ and the 
Fulham Union gets an e>:cel]ent quality of skimmed milk. 
Stepney has the most maguiloqueut coutract, and is the 
woi'st supplied with milko 



46 



MILK-ANALYSIS. 



(M I TO 



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MILK-SUrrLT OF LONDON WOEKHOrSES. 



47 



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48 



MILK-AXALYSIS. 



In Column 1 is given the designation of the sample, viz., 
the name of the Union which furnished it, and the number 
of the sample. 

In Column 2 is given the number of grms. of " solids not 
fat" contained by 100 grms. of the sample. 

In Cohimn 3, the fat. 

In Column 4, the number of grms. of genuine milk 
which was employed in making the 100 grms. of sample 
(calculated). 

In Column 5, the number of grms. of fat removed by 
skimming from. 100 grms. of sample (calculated). 

In Column 6, the number of grms. of cream which had 
been skimmed off 100 grms. of sample (calculated). 

In Column 7 is given the number of grms. of extra 
water which had been put into 100 grms. of sample 
(calculated). 

Inasmuch as I have submitted the analysis of these work- 
house milks to severe and elaborate treatment, it is right 
that some particulars should be recorded concerning the 
manner in which they were conducted. The ash of each 
milk was determined, and in no instance was it excessive in 
amount, showing that no mineral had been used to adulterate 
the milk. For organic adulteration I made no elaborate 
analysis; but no indication of such adulteration presented 
itself in the course of the examination ; furthermore, I 
should add that I have never yet met with a case of adultera- 
tion of milk with organic substances, and believe it to be of 
very rare occurrence. 

The solid residue dry at 100° C, was taken with great — 
and I believe unprecedented— accuracy. I have made a 
study of the taking of milk-residues, and set down thei 
average experimental error in the solid residue as not more 
than 0.02 per cent. The solid residues were taken twice 



MILK-SUPPLY OF LONDON WOEKHOUSES. 49 

over, and the mean of the two closely-agreeing determina- 
tions was employed in the construction of the table. 

The fats were taken with great care, but they do not 
pretend to so high a degree of accuracy as the total solids. 
It is hardly necessary to add that the numbers (designated 
as a) in the column headed " Grms. of Solids not Fat" were 
obtained by subtracting the quantity of fat (=: b) from the 
quantity of total solids dry at 100° C. 

The calculation of the quantities of genuine milk employed 
in making 100 grms. of the samples is based on the assumption, 
which I believe to be warranted, that milk is tolerably uniform 
in strength, consisting of 9.3 parts '' solids not fat," 3.2 parts 
of fat, and 87.5 parts of water. This is the composition of 
country-fed milk. There is, however, an exceptionally rich 
milk given by highly stall-fed cows in town. This milk 
contains 10.0 parts of " solids not fat," 4.0 parts of fat, and 
86.0 per cent of water ; but it is comparatively rare. 

If, in any instances in the above table, this rich stall-fed 
town milk has been employed instead of average country 
milk, then the real amount of watering and skimming in 
those instances is a little higher than the table exhibits. In 
the table there are seven examples of more than 100 grms. of 
genuine milk being used in making 100 grms. of the sample. 
Of these, one appears to be an example of this town-fed milk, 
the rest not being sufficiently above 100 to call for such a 
supposition. The example to which I refer is the Shoreditch 
milk, which on the first occasion yielded 9.99 per cent of 
" solids not fat," which is a very close approximation to the 
" solids not fat" in 100 parts of town-fed milk. 

When a exceeds 100 a minus quantity will correspond to it 
in Column 7, unless the slight correction for fat obliterate the 
minus quantity of water. On calculating for town-fed instead 
of for country-fed milk, the minus-quantities in Column 7 
will disappear in every instance. The calculation for town- 



50 MILK-xVNALYSIS. 

fed milk instead of for country-fed milk, as in the table, 
is simple, viz., substitute 10 a for -\^^- a ; substitute 0.4 a 
for t:f a. 

The occurrence of minus -quantities in the column headed 
'Tat Removed" requires a word of explanation. These 
minus-quantities have a real and substantial meaning. They 
are the quantities of fat which have been the reverse of 
removed, — that is to say, which have been added to the 
milk. Whenever one of these minus-quantities occurs in 
the " Fat Eemoved " column, one of three things has hap- 
pened : — Either the minus'quantity is Avithin the limits of 
experimental error, as is the case with three of them (viz., 
_0.0G, -6.05, and -0.07), or the milk was town milk, or the 
milk had through imperfect mixing received an undue share 
of the cream. There are only four cases of the kind in the 
table, viz., -0.57, -0.28, -OAT, and -0.34, 



CHAPTER X. 

CREAM, 

AVhen milk is left at rest for a number of hours, it throws 
up a whitish layer well known as cream, which is simply 
milk very rich in fat. 

In making examinations of cream, one of the first points 
which strikes the attention is the great variation in richness 
^^ hich it presents. 

The percentages of water in different samples of cream I 
have found to be as follows : 

Sample I. 72.20 per cent of water. 
" II. 71.20 
" III. 66.36 
" IV. 60.17 
" V. 53.62 '' 
'' YI. 60.0 *' " 

And the history and complete analysis of each specimen is 
as follows : 

Sample I. Was raised by myself from an excellent speci- 
men of country milk. It contained in 100 parts by weight — 

Water 72.20 

Tat laOO 

Caseine, milk-sugar, and ash . . 8.80 

100.00 



52 MILK- ANALYSIS. 

Sample II. Eaised by myself from ricli town milk. In 
100 parts by weight — 

Water 71.2 

Fat U-l 

Caseine, &c. ..... IJ^.7 

100.0 

Sample III. The same cream as Sample II. It had been 
allowed to stand for twenty-four hours longer. 

In 100 parts by weight — 

Water 66.36 

Eat 18.87 

Caseine, &c. ..... 11:. 77 



100.00 



Sample IV. Obtained from a well-known dairy. It had 
been allowed to rise for only five and a (quarter hours. 

In 100 parts by weight — 

Water 60.17 

Fat 33.02 

Milk-sugar, caseine, and ash . . 6.81 



100.00 



Sample V. From the same dairy, but had had longer time 
to rise. 

In 100 parts by weight — 

Water 53.62 

Fat ..... . 38.17 

Caseine, milk-sugar, and ash . . 8.21 



100.00 



CEEAM. 53 

Sample VI. From another dairy, a very thick cream. 

In 100 parts by weight — 

Water 50.00 

Fat 43.90 

Caseine and milk-sugar . . . 5.63 

Ash 0.47 



100.00 

Every one of these creams is genuine and unsophisti- 
cated. It is instructive to compare the percentages of fat in 
the different creams. 

Cream I. 19.00 fat per cent. 
" 11. 14.1 
" III. 18.87 
'' lY. 33.02 
" V. 38.17 " 

'' VI. 43.9 

If we regard the determination of fat in Cream II. as 
questionable (for a reason to be presently explained), and if 
we accept the determination of fat in Cream I., to which the 
objection does not apply, and if we also accept the high 
yields of fat to which no objection can be raised, we are led 
to the conclusion that cream is sometimes twice as rich in 
fat as it is at other times. And that being granted, what 
becomes of the creamometer, regarded as an instrument of 
precision ? 

The rise of the cream is a physical phenomenon, depend- 
ing on the difference in density between the globules of fat 
and the liquid in which they were floating, and also on the 
size of the globules. The difference between the cream and 
the skim-milk which has thrown it up is, that the former is 



54 ' MILK-ANALYSTS. 

milk higlily cliarged with fat globules, and the latter is milk 
comparatively slightly charged with fat globules. 

Cream is, iu fact, a solution of caseine, milk-sugar, and 
milk-ash in water, holding in suspension much fat. 

Skim-milk is a solution of the same ingredients which 
holds only little fat in suspension. 

If this holds strictly true, it follows as a necessary con- 
sequence that the ratio of the water to the sum of the milk- 
sugar, caseine, and ash in the milk, must be preserved in the 
cream. 

In the instance of Cream I., we have an opportunity of 
testing the validity of the thesis. The milk which threw 
up this cream had been analyzed, and found to contain 
water and solids not fat in the ratio of— 

87.55 : 9.38 

Cream I., as will be seen, contains water and solids not fat 
in the ratio of — 

72.20 : 8.80 

The theory requires that the ratio of water to solids not fat 
in the cream should be — 

72.20 : 8.31 

The correspondence is sufficiently near to show that the 
theory holds in this instance. 

The case of Creams II. and III. we will deal with pres- 
ently. Passing on to Cream IV., we have ratio of water to 
solids not fat — 

60.17 : 6.81 
Theory requires 

60.17 : 6.43 



CREAM. 55 

In Cream Y., the ratio is — 

53.G2 : 8.21 \ 

and it should be 

53.62 : 5.63 

which does not agree very well. 
In Cream VI., the ratio is — 

50.0 : 6.1 
It should be 

50.0 : 5.36 
which is a sufficiently close approximation. 

In Creams II. and III., which were drawn off the same 
sample of milk (which, by the way, was the rich town-fed 
milk), and which differ by being drawn after different 
periods had elapsed, we have — 

In Cream II., the ratio is — 

71.2 : 14.7 
In Cream III. — 

66.36 : 14.77 

the ratio required by the theory being 
85.93 : 10.07 

It would therefore appear that the rich town-fed milk is 
apt to throw up a little caseine along with the fat. Jn 
general, however, the cream consists simply of fat p/w^ a 
solution of caseine, milk-sugar, and ash, of just the same 
strength as existed in the milk which gave the cream. The 
exception in favor of the cream given by town-fed milk must 
even be received with extreme caution by reason of the great 
difficulty of the cream analysis, and the certainty that the 
whole experimental error falls on the determination of solids 



56 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

not fat, and that any imperfection in the analysis tends to 
enlarge the solids ?tot fat. 

There is far more difficulty in drying- a cream-residue than 
in drying a milk-residue : there is also the chance of loss of 
fat, and any imperfections of this kind would make solids not 
fit too high. 

In this place it is proper to say that the analysis of cream 
is very like the analysis of milk ; only that much less than 
five grammes should be taken for the determination of water. 
The cream must be weighed out — not measured. About two 
grammes is ample for the determination of water. The dry- 
ing must be made in the water-bath, and may take as long 
as six or eight hours. The question is often put — Has a 
given specimen of cream been thickened with gum or such 
like material ? 

A very decided answer may be given in the negative if the 
ratio of water to solids ifot fat is that required by the solu- 
tion of oaseine, milk-sugar*, and ash, constituting the non- 
fatty portion of milk. 

Should there be too much solids not fat, then the inquiry 
must be made whether the excess be caseine. 

Cream is sometimes suspected of being stiffened with 
starch ; this, of course, is at once detected by testing with 
a little iodine, which will at once strike a blue, if any such 
adulteration had been practised. 



CHAPTEE XL 

BUTTER. 

I:v the thickest varieties of cream there is probably incipient 
cohesion of the fat globules. In butter the fat has actually 
cohered ; and it ought also to have been washed and very 
shghtly salted. Butter is milk-fat, not indeed in a state of 
absolute chemical purity, but with a certain comparatively 
small proportion of water, and a little salt. 

The first point to be inquired into is, how much water 
may butter contain ? In fresh Devonshire butter I found — • 

Fat, 82.7 

Salt, 1.1 

Water, and trace of organic matter . 16.2 



100.0 



In Normandy butter — ■ 

Fat, . , . . , . 8l>.1 

Salt, 1.8 

AVater, and trace of organic matter . 1(3.1 



100.0 



These results agree with Mr. Way's observations ; and 
commercial fresh butter may, accordingly, contain some 18 
per cent, of water, including the touch of salt. Salt butter 
may apparently contain some 6 per cent, of salt. The 
analysis of butter is made as follows : — 

First, great care must be taken to get a fair sample of the 



58 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

lot. This is, perhaps, best clone by taking two specimens, 
one from the edge of the butter, and another from the centre. 
About one gramme of bul ter is enough for the estimation of 
water. This is to be weighed into one of the little platinum 
dishes, and dried in the bath as if it were a milk-residue. 
After three hours' drying it should be weighed, and returned 
to the bath, and weighed at intervals of an hour till constant. 
The drying up of butter is tedious, like the drying up of 
cream. Having dried it up, the residue is to be dissolved in 
dry ether, filtered, and the ethereal solution evaporated to 
dryness, and the residue dried in the water-bath. This 
second drying is a very easy one. 

The mineral matter is estimated by burning off the fat and 
weighing the residue. 

The "organic matter not fat" may be estimated by differ- 
ence. It may also be estimated directly. For this purpose 
several grammes of butter are weighed out, and dried for a 
short time in a platinum dish in the water-bath, and then 
subjected to the action of dry ether, whicli will dissolve out 
the fat and leave the rest. The ethereal solution is to be 
decanted off, and the residue dried up in the water-bath, 
weighed, and ignited, and again weighed. The difference 
between the two weights is the weight of the organic matter 
not fat. 

With regard to the question of admixture of foreign fats 
with milk-fat, we are unable, in the present condition of our 
knowledge, to deal Avith that part of the problem. 

As has been said, milk-fat is a mixture of the ethers of 
glycerine, which constitute the common fats. It contains, it 
is true, a trace of butyriue, in addition to the commoner 
glycerides ; and it is possible that, by an extraction of the 
butyric acid, we might arrive at data of some value in 
forming a judgment of the quality of the fat. But investi- 
gation is required before that could be depended upon ; and 



•BUTTEE. 59 

at present the chemist will act wisely in declining to pro- 
nounce -on the difference between butter-fat and other fat. 

In the butter-trade there are certainly two kinds of fraud 
which are very rife. The one is the passing off of butter of 
inferior flavor for butter of high flavor. The other is the 
making of butter take up too much water and salt. 

An investigation, which I had the honor of making for 
Government, illustrates how these two descriptions of fraud 
are practised in the London workhouses. 

I quote the report in extenso : — 

"EEPOET ON THE BUTTER SUPPLIED TO THE 
METROPOLITAN UNIONS. 

*' Good butter, as it occurs in the market, consists of 12.5 
per cent, of water, LO per cent, of salt, a little caseine, and 
the rest of butter-fats ; salt butter may contain 5 per cent, 
of salt. 

" The falsifications to which butter is liable are said to be 
the adulteration of it wdth organic substances like starch or 
gelatine, substances which are not fat ; adulteration with fat 
which is not butter- fat ; undue moisture, and saltness. 

" In the fifty specimens of workhouse butter sent to me 
by Mr. F. W. Rowsell between 8th May and 7th July, 1871 , 
I have not noted any case of adulteration with starch or other 
organic matter which is not fat. 

" The adulteration of butter-fat with foreign fats — that is 
to say, with fat which is not the fat of butter — is not capable 
of being ascertained with precision in the present state of 
chemical methods of analysis. 

'• In the instance of butter No. 6, viz., ' St. Giles-in-the- 
Eields (ofiicers),' I have met with a butter in which there 
appears to be some foreign fat. 

"The point brought out by my examination is the extra- 



60 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

ordinary way in wliicli many of the butters have been made 
to take up water. 

" I have also given an opinion on the quaUty of the butter, 
or its flavor. This opinion was obtained from professed 
butter-dealers. 

"Fourteen of the butters contain an undue proportion of 
water, viz., Kensington, Marylebone, St. Luke's (^Chelsea), 
Paddington (fresh), Paddington (paupers), Whitechapel (in- 
mates). City of London (inmates \ Holborn (inmates), Cam_ 
berwell. Stepney (inmates), Clapham and Wandsworth 
(inmates), Hackney (inmates), St. George's-in-the-East 
(inmates), Greenwich (inmates). 

" The worst case of undue wetness and saltness is * White- 
chapel, inmates,' which contains 35.6 per cent, of salt and 
water ; and, after deducting the small quantity of organic 
matter which is not fat, is seen to contain only some 60 per 
cent, of fat. 



EUTTER, 



61 



Name. 



St. George's {Kensiugton Workhouse). 

Kensington (salt) 

Marylebone 

Westniin.ster (information refused). . . . 

St. Luke's, Chelsea 

St. Giles-in-the-Fields (officers) 

St. Giles-in-the-Fields (paupers) 

Strand 

Fulham (oflBcers) 

Fulham 

Faddington (fresh) 

I'addington (paupers) 

Whitechapel (officers) 

Whitechapel (inmates) 

Mile-end Old Town (officers) 

Mile-end Old Town (inmates) 

City of London Mile-end Workhouse 

(officers) 

City of London Mile-end Workhouse 

(inmates) 

Shoreditch (officers) 

Shoreditch (inmates) 

Bethnell Green (officers) 

Bethaell Green (inmates^ 

St. Pancras (officers) 

St. Pancras (inmates) 

Holborn (officers) 

Holborn (inmates) 

Lambeth (officers) 

Lambeth (inmates) 

Cambervvell 

Islington 

Poplar (officers) 

Poplar (inmates) 

Stepney (officers) 

Stepney (inmates) 

St. Olaves (officers) 

St. Olaves (inmates) 

Hampstead (officers) 

Hampstead (inmates) 

Wandsworth and Clapham (officers). . . 
Wandsworth and Clapham (inmates). . 

St. Saviour's (officers) 

St Saviour's (inmates) 

Hackney (officers) 

Hackney (inmates) 

St. George's-in-the-East (officers) 

St. George's-in-the-East (inmates) 

Greenwich (officers) 

Greenwich (inmates) 

Lewisham (officers) 

Lewisham (inmates) 



8.6 
23.7 
18.2 



14.5 
13.2 
12.5 
9.7 
12.9 
13.1 
23.6 
16.5 
12.4 
24.9 
11.6 
11.5 

13.7 

20.0 
13.2 
15.3 
11.7 
11.3 
12.8 
12.2 

8.2 
19.7 
13.3 
13.2 
14.7 

9.8 
12.0 
12.9 
12.7 
16.5 
11.3 
14.3 
11.6 
12.2 
13.3 
15.3 
11.9 
12.6 
14.2 
16.6 

9.9 
15.4 
10.9 
19.4 
12.1 
10.7 



4.5 

6.0 
6 9 



3.2 

0.7 
1.0 
2.7 
0.1 
4.3 
1.0 
4.9 
1.0 
10.7 
2.1 
1.2 

1.1 

2.6 
1.0 

4.7 



2.4 
1.0 
5.1 
2.8 
7.0 
1.5 
2.1 
8.1 
4.4 
0.9 
6.3 



0.7 
2.3 
3.5 
0.1 
0.4 
1.7 
7.3 
5 
4.4 
1.1 
4.7 
3.5 
5.6 
1.7 
5.9 
0.4 
5.4 



Rank. 
Wretched. 
Tolerable. 

Fair. 

Veiy rank. 

Bad. 

Tolerably good. 

Very good. 

Good. 

Rather rank. 

Bad. 

Middling. 

Very bad. 

Good. 
Very fair. 

Good. 

Bad. 
Good. 
Bad. 
Good. 
Middling, 

Ba<i. 
Very bad. 

Good. 

Middling. 

Bad. 

) Exceedingly 

j bad. 

Tolerable. 

Middling. 

Very bad. 

Middling. 

Nasty. 

Pretty Good. ' 

Fair. 

Good. 

Fair. 

Very good. 

Bad. 

Very bad. 

Fair. 

Good. 

Tolerable. 

Good. 

Bad. 

Good. 

Fair. 

Tolerable. 

Good. 



London, July \Wi, 1871." 



J. Alfred Wanklyn. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CHEESE. 

Cheese consists mainly of caseine, milk-fat, a little salt and 
phosphate of lime, and water. It is, as is well known, pre- 
pared by subjecting- milk to the action of rennet, which 
coagulates it, and then pressing the curds, which, after 
treatment, constitute the cheese. There is gieat variation in 
the composition of cheese. 

According to Payen, the water ranges from 30 to 62 per 
cent. ; the fat, according to the same chemist, appears to vary 
from about 20 to about 30 per cent. The percentage of 
caseine appears to range from 15 to 35, and the mineral 
matter from 4^ to 7. 

The analysis of cheese is managed as follows : — The water 
is determined by taking about one gramme, and drying it in 
the water-bath in a small platinum dish (one of the little 
dishes used for milk-residues will answer very well), until it 
ceases to lose in weight. After the determination of the 
water, the residue may be ignited, and the ash weighed. 

Por the determination of fat and caseine, it is well to take 
a larger quantity of cheese. About ten grammes is a con- 
venient quantity. The cheese should be weighed out, having 
been first cut up into small pieces, and then introduced into a 
small llask. It is then boiled with dry ether, and the resulting 
ethereal solution of the fat is decanted off ; the boiling and 
decantation is repeated twice, and, finally, the ethereal solu- 
tions are carefully evaporated down in a platinum dish, and 
the fat which is left behind is dried at 100^' C. and weighed. 



CHEESE. 63 

In tlie above operation, great care must be taken to exhaust 
tliorougbly with ether ; the mass may be got out of the flask 
and powdered up in a mortar if necessary. It is also well to 
moisten with a few drops of strong alcohol before adding the 
ether. Having, as aforesaid, obtained from the cheese an 
ethereal solution of the fat, and having disposed of this 
ethereal solution, we return to the mass which refuses to dis- 
solve in the ether. This consists of caseine, possibly of milk- 
sugar as well, and certainly of salt and phosphate of lime. 
It is to be treated first with strong alcohol, and then washed 
with boiling water, and then dried in a platinum dish. The 
dry residue (which consists of caseine and phosphate of hme 
or ash) is then weighed, ignited, and weighed again : the 
difference, i. e., the loss on ignition, is the caseine. 

In order to determine the milk-sugar, the alcoholic and 
aqueous solutions are to be evaporated to dryness, the residue 
weighed and ignited, and the loss on ignition will include 
the sugar. 

In analysis of cheese it is necessary that a caution should 
be given respecting the large amount of ash in cheese. 
As much as 7 per cent, of ash may be present in cheese, 
without adulteration with mineral matter having been 
practised. 

It has been stated that oxide of lead has been found in 
cheese. Should any such case arise, it is very easily dealt 
with. The cheose-ash (which, in such a case, should be got 
in a porcelain crucible, since lead attacks platinum) is tested 
for lead by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. 



CHAPTEE XIIL 

KOUMISS. 

In addition to cream, butter, and cheese, the derivatives of 
milk inchide whey and butter-milk, which latter do not call 
for any special notice. There is, however, another derivative 
of milk, which ought not to be passed over. Milk can be 
got to ferment and yield a sort of milk- wine, which goes by 
the name of koumiss. In Tartary, where mare's milk is 
used -for the purpose, the drink which results is of great im- 
portance as an article of nourishment for the population. 
The use of koumiss is said, moreover, to impart immunity 
from phthisis, and an attempt is being made in this country 
to produce an English koumiss for the use of patients whose 
nutrition is impaired. It is hoped that koumiss will prove 
to be at least as efficacious as cod-liver-oil is believed by 
many people to be. 

The following analyses of koumiss manufactured in Lon- 
don by E. Chapman & Co. were made in my laboratory. 

It should be mentioned, that inasmuch as mare's milk 
contains a larger proportion of sugar than cow's milk, an 
addition of a little sugar is made to the milk before it is set 
to ferment. 

In "full koumiss," forty-eight hours old, which had a 
specific gravity of 1.032 at 67° Eah., I found — ■ 
In lUO parts by weight — 
Water ...... 87.32 

Alcohol ..... 1.00 

Carbonic acid ...» 0.90 

Solids ...... 10.78 



100,00 



KOUMISS. 

The 10.78 parts of solids contained^ 

Ca'seine . . • • • 2.8-1: 

Lactose and lactic acid . . . 6.60 

Fat 0.68 

Ash 0.66 



65 



10.78 
Some of the same sample of koumiss, after having been kept 
for six days at 62^ Fah., contained in 100 parts by weight — 

Water 88.47 

Alcohol 1.60 

Carbonic acid . . . . 1.50 

Solids 8.43 



100.00 
A determination of the proportion of lactic acid in this 
koumiss, on its tenth day, or eight days older than when 
first examined, showed 1.1 per cent. When thirty- five days 
old this koumiss had a specific gravity of 1.023, and con- 
tained in 100 parts by weight — 

Water 89.16 

Alcohol 1.80 

.Carbonic acid . . . . 1.50 

Solids 7.54 





100.00 


The solids consisting of — 




Caseine . . . . 


2.57 


Lactose and lactic acid . 


3.82 


Fat 


.50 


Ash 


.65 



7.54 

To begin with, koumiss contains about the same percent- 
»:e of solids as skimmed milk ; but, as will be observed on 



66 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

iiispeetiiig tliese analyses, and, as might have been expected, 
koumiss, as it grows older, loses sugar and total solids. 

It is claimed for koumiss that it presents the caseine in a 
form specially assimilable by invalids, and that koumiss will 
sometimes nourish persons when nothing else will nourish. 
It is not the place, in a work like the present, to discuss how 
far these claims are made good, but it is right to call atten- 
tion to the fact of siibI). olaiuis having he^^n put forward. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

CONDENSED AND PKESETlYED MILK. 

Tnrs preparation of milk, wliicli is now mncli in vogue, con- 
sists of milk which has been evaporated down in vacuo. 

AVhen it is intended to keep for any lengthened period, it 
is mixed with a considerable proportion of pure cane-sugar. 

When it is not required to keep for longer than two or 
three days, it is simply tinned, and not mixed with sugar. 

The condensed milk is strictly what its name signifies ; for, 
on being mixed with the appropriate quantity of water, it 
regenerates milk. The preserved milk, too, regenerates milk 
on being diluted ; only it is sweet, owing to the sugar em- 
ployed in the preservation. 

A year ago, a report was spread that these preserved milks 
were preserved skim-milk, and not preserved new milk. This 
report, which was spread by a Grovernment official who ought 
to have known better, is a most undeserved calumny. 

I have myself examined the principal brands of iDreserved 
and condensed milk which are in the London market, and 
find that the milk which had been condensed, or condensed 
and preserved, had been charged with its due proportion of 
fat. 

In the Anglo-Swiss, I found 9.9 per cent, of fat. In the 
product of the English Condensed Milk Company (Limited), 
I found 10.4 per cent, of fat in the preserved milk and 12.11 
per cent, in the condensed milk. 

The method of analyzing condensed or preserved milk is 
that recommended for cheese. Great care must be taken in 



68 



MILK-AI7ALTSrS. 



the estimation of the fat. Disintegration with alcohol, or 
actual pulverization in a mortar, is to be recommended, in 
order to bring the ether completely into relation with the 
mass. The following analyses of the produce of the English 
Condensed Milk Company may be of interest : — 

PRESERVED MILK. 

In 1**0 parts by weight — 



Water . 


. 


20.5 


Fat 




10.4: 


Caseine . 




11.0 


Asli 




2.0 


Cane and milh 


-sugar 


50.1 




100.00 




CONDENSED MILK, 




Water . 


. • 


. 51.12 


Fat 


, , 


. 12.11 


Caseine . 


„ 


13.04 


Milk-sugar 


, 


. 20.30 


Ash 


.... 


2.77 



100,00 



CHAPTER XV. 

POISONOUS MILK AND MILK-PANICS. 

It is known that violent mental emotion exercises an un- 
favorable influence on the secretion of the mammary gland ; 
and a fit of anger has rendered the milk of the human mother 
poisonous to the child. No doubt the milk of the cow is 
more or less liable to similar influences ; and cows which are 
giving milk should not be driven or harassed in any way. 
Diet, too, has an effect on the quality of the milk ; a purga- 
tive administered to the mother often taking effect on the 
child. Poisonous herbs fed on by the cow contaminate the 
milk ; and a very well-known example in point is afforded 
by turnipy butter, which derives its very objectionable (though 
not poisonous) properties from turnips on which the cow has 
happened to feed. All this tends to show the importance of 
attending to the health of milk-giving cows, and to the kind 
of fodder on which they are fed. 

Milk, after it has been yielded by the animal, may suffer 
contamination at a later stage. A case is recorded where, in 
the process of milking, which was performed by persons re- 
covering from, scarlet fever, the infection of scarlet fever was 
conveyed by the milk to children who drank it. This is, I 
believe, authentic enough. 

In addition to these genuine instances of milk-poisoning, 
a very subtle kind of poisoning has been described. It has 
been said that, if a very minute qantity of water from a 
foul well be mixed Avith a very large quantity of milk, the 
whole mass of milk will become poisonous. And, as is well 



70 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

linown, considerable alarm lias been created in the west-end 
of London, by a report that the milk purveyed by a certain 
milk-company had occasioned an outbreak of typhoid fever 
in Marylebone, and the parishes adjacent to Marylebone. 

It is, however, important to record that the result of in- 
vestigation has been to demonstrate the groundlessness of 
these alarms. The returns of the Eegistrar- General, which 
are now before the public, show that Marylebone has seldom 
been so free from typhoid fever as during the period of the 
supposed epidemic. 

The history of this supposed ejiidemic of typhoid fever, 
or, as it would be more correctly designated, the history of 
the milk-panic of 1873, is very instructive in many ways. 

Early in August, 1873, several children of an eminent west- 
end physician were ill of typhoid fever, and their father 
attributed the disease to the milk which they took. The 
doctor's family was supplied with milk by the Dairy Reform 
Company. On communicating his suspicions to neighboring 
medical men, and to the medical officer of health for the dis- 
trict, a number of cases of alleged typhoid were found among 
customers of the same dairy, a strangely large proportion of 
these cases occurring in the families of medical men. It was 
said that, naturally enough, the superior knowledge of medical 
men was the explanation of the apparent preference of the 
disease for their families, and that by and by the anomaly 
would disappear when the multitudes of unrecognized cases 
in non-medical families became sufficiently serious to force 
recognition of their real nature. The physician and the 
medical officer of health (in a most public-spirited manner, 
as it was called) addressed a peremptory order to the 
directors of the milk-company to stop selling milk ; the 
fears of the physician even reached the local Government 
Board, and an official investigation was ordered. 

Meanwhile the press took up the subject, and the medical 



POISONOUS MILK AND MILK-PANICS. 71 

papers and the non-technical newspapers vied with one 
another in sensational descriptions of the "Outbreak of Ty- 
phoid Fever," its source, and the wickedness or recklessness 
of the milk-company which had caused it. 

At the outset of the panic, the leading journal published a 
list of twenty-three households wherein inmates were said to 
have been poisoned by the Dairy Eeform Company. With 
the assistance of my friend Mr. Cooper, I took the trouble 
to inquire into some of these cases. In one of these house- 
holds there was no one ill, and there had been no one ill. 
In another household, there had been only a little summer 
diarrhoea. In a third, the lady had been taken ill in Munich, 
where typhoid fever is known to be rife. In a fourth, where 
the servants were affected, the water in the kitchen was bad, 
the general supply to the house being good. The servant 
had, moreover, been a day's journey into the country during 
the very hot weather, and had been overheated. I did not 
pursue the investigation further. 

The official report on the condition of the farms whence the 
milk-company derive their supply of milk, has not yet been 
published. A gentleman who attended on behalf of the Dairy 
Eeform Company, has, however, written to The Times news- 
paper a letter purporting to give an outline of the conclusions 
arrived at by the commission. From this letter we gather 
that at the time of the inquiry there were no cases of typhoid 
on any of the farms, and that there had been no recent cases. 
Instead, however, of calling public attention to that most 
satisfactory result of the inquiry, the writer of the letter 
dwelt upon a very doubtful case which had occurred on one 
of the farms at a rather remote period. The su^oposed 
epidemic was alleged to be at its height about the 10th of 
August, and before the beginning of August nothing had been 
heard of any epidemic. On the supposition of infection from 
one of the farms, we should hardly look for the case before 



72 MILK-ANALYSIS. 

the beginning of July. The case, however, to which the 
writer of the letter directed attention, dated as far back as 
before the 8th of June. The case in question was that of the 
farmer who had occupied one of the farms, and who died on 
the 8tli of June. Even the nature of his illness is involved 
in doubt. The man's death, indeed, is entered on the regis- 
ter as caused by heart disease, from which he had been 
known to have suffered for at least a year ; and the sudden- 
ness of his death is quite in accordance with the register. 
Some few weeks before his death he had an attack of 
diarrhceaof a suspicious character, and that circumstance was 
seized upon as a reason for setting down his case as one of 
typhoid fever. It is, however, hard to believe that the 
excreta from this man can have poisoned the farm-well, and 
that the water from that well should have jioisoned the 
milk which was sent to London, without poisoning any one 
on the farm ; and the wonder becomes the greater since 
the water from the well was occasionally, though not usually, 
employed for domestic purposes. 

As already mentioned, the reported case of typhoid oc- 
curred very much too early to account for what was called the 
London outbreak. It is very curious to observe that thel; er- 
mination of the outbreak did not accord with the theory. That 
which was designated the "infected milk," ceased to be sup- 
j)lied to London on the 11th of August, and forthwith — within 
two or three days — the epidemic was re})Ortedto have declined. 
Tlie period of incubation in typhoid fever is ten days or there- 
abouts, therefore the stoppage of the poisoning on the 11th 
should not have been felt till towards the 21st. 

It has been mentioned that when the returns of the Ee- 
gistrar- General were published, the mortality in Maryle- 
bone from typhoid fever was found to have been lower than 
usual. The following are the returns, week by week, em- 
bracing the whole period of the panic. I'opulation of Mary- 
lebone, 150,251. 



POISOTs'OrS MILK AND MILK-PANICS. 



73 



The deaths from 


typhoid fever in 


Marylebone 


were as 


lows : — 








During week end 


mg 5 th July 


. 





(( 


12th *' . 






1 


(( 


19th " . 






2 


u 


26th " . 









(( 


2d August 






1 


(( 


9th " 






1 


(( 


16th " 






3 


li 


23d ^' 






o 


ii 


80th " 






2 


(( 


6th September 






2 



Total during the ten weeks 14 
Being at the rate of rather less than one per 100,000 per 
week. 

A poison which does not poison you if you take it in aque- 
ous solution, but poisons a whole township when that same 
aqueous solution is diluted with milk a hundred or a thousand 
fold, and whose period of incubation is sometimes two months 
and sojnetimes three days, according to the exigencies of your 
case, must be singular indeed. And w4ien such a poison 
seems to have ravaged a whole parish, it marks its ravages 
most appropriately by a diminution in the death-rate. 



TJiK END. 



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Royal 8vo, 664 pp. Cloth. $15.00. 

THE THEOEY OF STEAINS IN GIEDEES and Similar Struc- 
tures, with Observations on the Application of Theory to Practice, 
and Tables of Strength and other Properties of Materials. By 
BiNDON B. Stoney, B. A. 



Roebling's Bridges. 

Imperial folio. Cloth. $25.00. 

I.ONa AND SHOET SPAN EAILWAY BEIDGES. By Johx 
A. EoEBLiNG, C. E. Illustrated with large copperplate engrav- 
ings of plans and views. 

List of Plates 

1. Parabolic Truss Railway Bridge. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Details of Parabolic 
Truss, with centre span 500 feet in the clear. 7. Plan and View of a Bridge 
over the Mississippi River, at St. Louis, for railway and conamon travel. 8, 9, 
10, 11, 12. Details and View of St. Louis Bridge. 13. Railroad Bridge over 
the Ohio. 

Diedrichs' Theory of Strains, 

8vo. Cloth. $5.00. 

A Compendium for the Calculation and Construction of Bridges, 
Eoofs, and Cranes, with the Application of Trigonometrical 
Notes. Containing the most comprehensive information in re- 
gard to the Eesulting Strains for a permanent Load, as also for 
a combined (Permanent and Polling) Load. In two sections 
adapted to the requirements of the present time. By John Died- 
EiCHS. Illustrated by numerous plates and diagrams, 

" The want of a compact, universal and popular treatise on the Construc- 
tion of Roofs and Bridges — especially one treating- of the influence of a varia- 
ble load — and the unsatisfactory essays of different authors on the GubJQct, 
induced me to prepare this work." 



D. VAN NOSTRAND. 



Whilden's Strength, of Materials. 

12mo. Cloth. $2.00. 

ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS used ia Engmeering 
Coustruction. By J. K. Whilden. 



Campin on Iron Roofs. 

Large 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON ROOFS. A Theoretical 
and Practical Treatise. By Feancis Campin. With wood-cuts 
and plates of Roofs lately executed. 

" The mathematical formulas are of an elementary kind, and the process 
admits of an easy extension so as to embrace the prominent varieties of iron 
truss bridges. The treatise, though of a practical scientific character, may be 
easily mastered by any one familiar with elementary mechanics and plane 
trigonometry." 

HoUey's Railway Practice, 

1 vol. folio. Cloth. $12.00. 

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN RAILWAY PRACTICE, in 

the Economical Greneration of Steam, including the materials 
and construction of Coal-burning Boilers, Combustion, the Varia- 
ble Blast, Vaporization, Circulation, Super-heating, Supplying 
and Heating Feed- water, &c., and the adaptation of Wood and 
Coke-burning Engines to Coal-burning ; and in Permanent Way, 
including Road-bed, Sleepers, Rails, Joint Fastenings, Street 
Railways, &c., «S:c. By Alexander L. Holley, B. P. With 77 
lithographed plates. 

" This is an elaborate treatise by one of our ablest civil engineers, on the con- 
struction and use of locomotives, with a few chapters on tlie building of Rail- 
rotids. ^ '"* * All these subjects are treated by the author, who is a 
first-class railroad engineer, in both an intelligent and intelligible manner. The 
facts and ideas are well arranged, and presented in a clear and simple style, 
accompanied by beautiful engravings, and we presume the work will be regard- 
ed as indispensable by all who are interested in a knowledge of the construc- 
tion of railroads and roiling stock, or the working of locomotives." — ticienUfio 
American, 



8 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Henrici's Skeleton Structures. 

8vo. Cloth. $1.50. 

SKELETON STEUCTUEES, especially in their Application to 
the building of Steel and Iron Bridges. By Olaus Henrici. 
With folding plates and diagrams. 

By presenting these general examinations on Skeleton Structures, -with 
particular application for Suspended Bridges, to Engineers, I venture to ex- 
press the hope that they will receive these theoretical results with some confi- 
dence, even although an opportunity is wanting to compare them Avith practi- 
cal results. 0. H. 



Useful Information for Railway Men. 

Pocket form. Morocco, gilt, $2.00. 

Compiled by W. G. Hamilton, Engineer. Eiftli edition, revised 
and enlarged. 570 pages. 

" It embodies many valuable formulae and recipes useful for railway men, 
and, indeed, for almost every class of persons in the world. The ' informa- 
tion ' comprises some valuable formukie and rules for the construction of 
boilers and engines, masonry, properties of steel and iron, and the strength 
of materials generally." — Railroad Gazette, Chicago. 



Brooklyn "Water Works. 

1 vol. folio. Cloth. $25.00. 

A DESCEIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTEUCTION OF 
THE WOEKS, and also Eeports on the Brooklyn, Hartford, 
Belleville, and Cambridge Bumping Engines. Prepared and 
printed by order of the Board of Water Commissioners. With 
59 illustrations. 

Contents. — Supply Ponds — The Conduit -Ridgewood Engine House and 
Pump Well — Hidgewood Engines — Force Mains — Ridgewood Reservoir — 
Pipe Distribution — Mount Prospect Reservoir — Mount Prospect Engine 
House and Engine — Drainage Grounds — Sewerage Works — Appendix. 



]). VAjST 2WSrilA]^U. 



Kirkwood on Filtration. 

4to. Cloth. .*15.00. 

EEPOET ON THE FILTEATION OF EIVEE WATEES, for 

the Supply of Cities, as practised in Europe, made to the Board 
of Water Commissioners of the City of St. Louis. By James P. 
Kirkwood. Illustrated by 30 double-plate engravings. 

Contents. — Report on Filtration — London "Works, General — Chelsea 
"Water Works and Filters — Lambeth "Water Works and Filters — South wark 
and Vauxhall Water Works and Filters — Grand Junction Water Works and 
Filters — West Middlesex Water Works and Filters — New River Water 
Works and Filters — East London Water Works and Filters — Leicester Water 
Works and Filters — York Water Works and Filters — Liverpool Water Works 
and Filters — Edinburgh Water Works and Filters — Dublin Water Works 
and Filters — Perth W^ater Works and Filtering Gallery — Berlin Water 
Works and Filters — Hamburg Water AVorks and Reservoirs — Altona Water 
Works and Filters — Tours Water Y/orks and Filtering Canal — Angers Water 
Yv^orks and Filtering Galleries — Nantes W^ater Works and Filters — Lyons 
Water Works and Filtering Galleries — Toulouse Water Works and Filtering 
Galleries — Marseilles Water Works and Filters — Genoa W'ater Works and 
Filtering Galleries — Leghorn Y/ater Yv'orks and Cisterns — Wakefield Water 
Works and Filters — Appendix. 



Tunner on RoU-Tnrning. 

1 vol. 8vo. and 1 vol. plates. $10.00. 

A TEEATISE ON EOLL-TUENING EOE THE MANUEAC- 
TUEE OF lEON. By Peter Tunner. Translated and adapted. 
By John B. Peause, of the Pennsylvania Steel Works. With 
numerous Avood-cuts, 8vo., together with a folio atlas of 10 litho- 
graphed plates of Eolls, Measurements, &c. 

" We commend this book as a clear, elaborate, and practical treatise upon 
the department of iron manufacturing operations to which it is devoted. 
The Avriter states in his preface, that for twenty-five years he has felt the 
necessity of such a work, and has evidently brought to its preparation the 
fruits of experience, a painstaking regard for accuracy of statement, and a 
desire to furnish information in a style readily understood. The book should 
be in the hands of every one interested, either iu the general practice of 
mechanical engineering, or the special branch of manufacturing operations to 
which the work relates.' — American Artisan. 



10 SCIBJSTTIFia BOOKH PUBLISHED JJT 

Glynn on the Power of Water. 

12mo. Cloth. $1.00. 

A TEEATISE OX THE POWER OF AVATEP., as applied to 
drive Elour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other 
Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glyxx, F.P. S. Third edition, 
revised and enlarged, with numerous illustrations. 



He"wson on Embankments. 

8^0. Cloth. $2.00. 

PEINCIPLES AND PRACTIC^E OF EMBANKING- LANDS 

from River Floods, as applied to the Levees of the Mississippi. 
By William Hewson, Civil Engineer. 

" This is a valuable treatise on the principles and practice of embanking 
lands from river floods, as applied to the Levees of the Mississippi, by a highly 
intelligent and experienced engineer. The author says it is a first attempt 
to reduce to order and to rule the design, execution, and measurement of the 
Levees of the Mississippi. It is a most useful and needed contribution to 
scientific literature. — PJiiladci^hia Evening Journal. 



Griiner on Steel. 

8vo. Cloth. if^y.oO. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL. By M. L. Gruner, trans- 
lated from the French. By Lenox Smith, A. M., E. M., with an 
appendix on the Bessemer Process in the United States, by the 
translator. Illustrated by lithographed drawings and wood-cuts. 

" The purpose of the work is to present a careful, elaborate, and at the 
same time practical examination into the physical properties of steel, as well 
as a description of the new processes and mechanical appliances for its manufac- 
ture. The information which it contains, gathered from many trustworthy 
sources, will be found of much value to the American steel manufacturer, 
who may thus acquaint himself with the results of careful and elaborate ex- 
periments in other countries, and better prepare himself for successful com- 
petition in this important industry with foreign makers. The fact that this 
vohxme is from the pen of one of the ablest metallurgists of the present day, 
cannot fail, we think, to secure for it a favorable consideration. — Iron Age. 



7). VAy^ XOSTJIAXJ). 11 

Bauerman on Iron. 

12ino. Cloth. $2.00. 

TEEATISE ON THE METALLUEGY OF lEON. Contain- 
ing outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, methods of 
Assay, and analysis of Iron Ores, processes of manufacture of 
Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. BAUEiiMAJf. First American 
edition. Ee vised and enlarged, with an appendix on the Martin 
Process for making Steel, from the report of Abram S. Hewitt. 
Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 

" This is an important addition to the stock of technical -works published in 
this country. It embodies the latest facts, discoveries, and processes con- 
nected with the manufacture of iron and steel, and should be in the hands of 
every person interested in the subject, as well as in all technical and scientific 
libraries." — Scientific American. 



Link and Valve Motions, by W. S. 
Auchincloss. 

8vo. Cloth. $3.00. 

APPLICATION OF THE SLIDE VALVE and Link Motion to 
Stationary, Portable, Locomotive and Marine Engines, with new 
and simple methods for proportioning the parts. By Willia:\i 
S. AucHi^'CLoss, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. Designed as 
a hand-book for Mechanical Engineers, Master Mechanics, 
Draughtsmen and Students of Steam Engineering. All dimen- 
sions of tho valve are found with the greatest ease by means of 
a Printed Scale, and proportions of the link determined vnthout 
the assistance of a model. Illustrated by o7 wood-cuts and 21 
lithographic plates, together with a copperplate engraving of the 
Travel Scale. 

All the matters we have mentioned are treated with a clearness and absence 
of unnecessary verbiage which renders the work a peculiarly valuable one. 
The Travel Scale only requires to bo known to be appreciated. Mr. A. writes 
so ably on his subject, we wish he had written more. London En- 
gineering. 

"We have never opened a work relating to steam which seemed to us better 
calculated to give an iiitclligent mind a clear understanding of the depart- 
ment it discusser. — Scientific American. 



12 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Slide Valve by Eccentrics, by Prof. 
C, Wo MacCord. 

4to. Illustrated. Cloth, f4.00. 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE SLIDE YALYE BY 
ECCENTRICS, examining by methods, the action of the Eccen- 
tric upon the SHde Yalve, and explaining the practical proces- 
ses of laying out the movements, adapting the valve for its 
various duties in the steam-engine. For the use of Engineers, 
Draughtsmen, Machinists, and Students of valve motions in 
general. By C. "W. MacCord, A. M., Professor of Mechanical 
Drawing, Stevens' Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N J. 



Stillman's Steam-Engine Indicator. 

12ino. Cloth. $1.00. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, and the Improved Mano- 
meter Steam and Yacuum Gauges ; their utility and application 
By Paul Stillman. New edition. 



Bacon's Steam-Engine Indicator. 

12mo. Cloth. $1.00. Mor. $1.50. 

A TREATISE ON THE RICHARDS STEAM-ENGINE IN- 
DICATOR, with directions for its use. By Cuarles T. Porter. 
Revised, with notes and large additions as developed by Amer- 
ican Practice, with an Appendix containing useful formuloe and 
rules for Engineers. By F. W. Bacon, M. E., Member of tlio 
American Society of Civil Engineers. Illustrated. Second Edition 

In this work, Mr. Porter's book has been taken as the basis, but Mr. Bacon 
has adapted it to American Practice, and has conferred a great boon on 
American Engineers. — Artisan. 



Bartol on Marine Boilers. 

8vo. Cloth. $1.50. 

TREATISE ON THE MARINE BOILERS OF THE UNITED 
STATES. By H. B. Bartol. Illustrated. 



T>. VAJS' jSWSrnAJ^D. 13 

Gillmore's Limes and Cements. 

Fourth Edition. Revise I and Enlargd. 

8vo. Cloth. $4.00. 

PEACTICAL TEEATISE ON LIMES, HYDEAULIC CE- 
MENTS, AND MOETAES. Papers on Practical Engineering, 

U. S. Engineer Department, No. 9, containing Eeports of 
numerous experiments conducted in New York City, during the 
years 1858 to 1861, inclusive. By Q. A. Gillmgee, Brig-General 
U. S. Yolunteers, and Major TJ. S. Corps of Engineers. With, 
numerous illustrations. 

" This "work contains a record of certain experiments and researches made 
under the authority of the Eng-ineer Bureau of the War Department from 
1858 to 1861, upon the various hydraulic cements of the United States, and 
the materials for their manufacture. The experiments were carefully made, 
and are well reported and compiled. ' — Journal Franklin Institute. 



Gillmore's Coignet Beton. 

Svo. Cloth. $2.50. 

COIGNET BETON AND OTHEE AETIEICIAL STONE. By 
Q. A. GiLLMOKE. 9 Plates, Yiews, etc. 

This work describes with considerable minuteness of detail the several kinds 
of artificial stone in most general use in Eurox)e and now beginning- to be 
introduced in the United States, discusses their properties, relative merits, 

and cost, and describes the materials of which they are composed 

The subject is one of special and growing- interest, and we commend the work, 
embodying as it does the matured opinions of an experienced engineer and 
expert. 



Williamson's Practical Tables. 

4to. Flexible Cloth. $3.50. ' 

PEACTICAL TABLES IN METEOEOLOGY AND HYPSO- 
METEY, in connection with the use of the Barometer, By Col. 

E. a WiLLlAMSOM, U. S. A. 



14 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY 



Williamson on the Barometer. 

4to. Cloth. 115.00. 
ON THE USE OF THE LAEOMETEPv OX SUEYEYS AND 
RECONNAISSANCES. Part I. Meteorology in its Conucc- 
iloiL with. Hypsometry. Part II. Barometric Ilypsomotry. By 
11. S. WiLLiAMSox, Bvt. Lieut. -Col. PI. S. A., Major Corps of 
Engineers. \Yitli Illustrative Tables and Engravings. Paper 
No. 15, Professional Papers, Corps of Engineers. 

" SA>q Francisco, Cal., Feb. 27, 18G7. 
" Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army : 

" General, — I have the honor to submit to you, in the following pages, the 
results of my investigations in meteorology and hypsometry, made vp-ith the 
view of ascertaining how far the barometer can be used as a reliable instru- 
ment for determining altitudes on extended lines of survey and reconnais- 
sances. These investigations have occupied the leisure permitted me from my 
professional duties during the last ten years, and I hope the results will be 
deemed of sufficient value to have a place assigned them among the printed 
professional papers of the United States Corps of Engineers. 
" Yery respectfully, your obedient servant, * 

'•R. S. WILLIAMSON, 
" Bvt. Lt.-CoL IT. S. A., Major Corps of U. S. Engineers." 



Yon Cotta's Ore Deposits. 

8vo. Cloth. 0-i.OO. 
TEEATISE ON OEE DEPOSITS. By Bernhard Yon Cotta, 
Professor of Geology in the Eoyal School of Mines, Ereidberg, 
Saxony. Trane-lated from the second German edition, hy 
Frederick Pri:me, Jr., Mining Engineer, and revised by the 
author, with numerous illustrations. 
*' Prof. Yon Cotta of the Freiberg School of Mines, is the author of the 
best modern treatise on ore deposits, and we are heartily glad that this ad- 
mirable Avork has been translated and published in this country. The trans- 
lator, Mr, Frederick Prime, Jr., a graduate of Freiberg, has had in his work 
the great advantage of a revision by the author himself, who declares in a 
I)rcfatory note that this may bo considered as a new edition (the third) of his 
own book, 

*' It ia a timely and welcome contribution to the literature of mining in 
this country, and wo are grateful to the translator for his enterprise and j^ood 
judgment in undertaking its preparation ; while we recognize with equal cor- 
diality the liberality of the author in granting both permission and assist- 
g-nce." — Extract fro) a Ecview in Englueering aiui Muiing Jourmd. 



V. VAJV JSrOSTBAJS^D. 15 

Plattner's Blow-Pipe Analysis. 

, Second edition. Eevised. 8vo. Cloth. $7.50. 

PLATTNEE'S MANUAL OF QUALITATIVE AND QUAN- 
TITATIVE ANALYSIS AVITII THE BLOW-PirE. Prom 
tho last German edition Pevised and enlarged. By Prof. Tn. 
PiCHTEE, ofthePoyal Saxon Miuing Academy. Translated Ly 
Prof. IL P. CoKNWALL, Assistant in tlie Columbia School of 
Mines, New York; assisted by Jonx II. Caswell. Illustrated 
with, eighty-seven wood-cuts and one Lithographic Plato. 5G0 
pages. 

" Plattner's celebrated -work has long been recognized as the only complete 
book on Blow-Pipe Analysis. The fourth German edition, edited by Prof. 
Bichter, fully sustains the reputation which the earlier editions acquired dur- 
ing the lifetime of the author, and it is a source of great satisfaction to us to 
know that Prof. Richter has co-operated with the translator in issuing tho 
American edition of the work, which is in fact a fifth edition of the original 
work, being far more complete than the last German edition." — SllUmari's 
Journal. 

Tliere is nothiaig so complete to be found in the English language. Platt- 
ner's book is not a mere pocket edition ; it is iatended as a comprehensive guide 
to all that is at present known on the blow-pipe, and as such is really indis- 
pensable to teachers and advanced pupils. 

" Mr. Cornwall's edition is something more than a translation, as it contains 
many corrections, emendations and additions not to be found in the original. 
It is a decided improvement on the work in its German dress." — Journal of 
Applied Chemistry, 



Egleston's Mineralogy, 

8vo. Illustrated with 3-4 Lithographic Plates. Cloth. $4.50. 

LECTUEES ON DESCEIPTIVE MINEEALOGY, Delivered 
at the School of Mines, Columbia College. Br Professor T. 
Egleston. 

These lectures are what their title indicates, the lectures on Mineralogy 
delivered at the School of Mines of Columbia College. They have been, 
printed for the students, in order that more time might be given to the vari- 
ous methods of examining and determining minerals. The second part has 
only been printed. The first part, comprising crystallography and physical 
mineralogy, will bo x^rinted ut bome future time. 



16 SCIEKTIFIG J300KS PUT.LISIIED BY 

Pynclioii's Chemical Physics^ 

New Edition. Mevised and Enlarged, 

Crown 8vo. Cloth. tjjvj.OO. 

INTEODUCTION TO CHEMICAL TIIYSICS, Designed for the 
ITsG of Academies, Colleg-es, and Iligli Schools. Illustrated with 
numerous engravings, and containing copious experiments with 
directions for preparing them. By Tuomas Huggles Ptxchox, 
M. A., Professor of Chemistry and the Natural Sciences, Trinity 
College, Hartford. 

Hitherto, no ■work suitable for g-eneral use, treating of all these subjects 
■within the limits of a single volumo, could bo found ; consequently the atten- 
tion they have received has not been at all proportionate to their importance. 
It is believed that a book containing so much valuable information within so 
small a compass, cannot fail to meet with a ready sale among all intelligent 
persons, while rrofcssional men, Physicians, Medical Students, Photograph- 
ers, Telegraphers, Engineers, and Artisans generally, will find it specially 
valuable, if not nearly indispensable, as a book of reference. 

" Wo strongly recommend this able treatise to our readers as the first 
work ever published on the subject free from perplexing technicalities. In 
stylo it is pure, in description graphic, and its typographical appearance is 
artistic. It is altogether a m^ost excellent work." — Eclectic Medical Journal. 

" It treats fully of Photography, Telegraphy, Steam Engines, and the 
various applications of Electricity. In short, it is a carefully prepared 
volume, abreast with the latest scientific discoveries and inventions.' — Hart- 
ford Courant. 



Plympton's Blow-Pipe Analysis. 

12mo. Cloth. $2.00. 

THE BLOW-PIPE : A System of Instruction in its practical use 
being a graduated course of Analysis for the use of students, 
and all those engaged in the Examination of Metallic Combina- 
tions. Second edition, with an appendix and a copious index. 
By Geoege W. Plympton, of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn. 

" This manual probably has no superior in the English language as a text- 
book for beginners, or as a guide to the student working without a teacher. 
To the latter many illustrations of the utensils and apparatus required in 
using the blow-pipe, as well as the fully illustrated description of the blow- 
pipe flame, will be especially serviceable.''— A<L^<o York TcacJtcr. 



D. VAJS' JSrOSTBAJ^B. 



lire's Dictionary. 

Sixth Edition, 

London, 1872. 

3 vols. 8vo. Cloth, $25.00. Haff Russia, $32.50. 

DICTIONAEY OF AETS, MANUFACTUEES, AND MINES. 
By AxDEEW L"ee, M.D. Sixth edition. Edited by Eobeet Hunt, 
F.E.S., greatly enlarged end rewritten. 



Brande and Cox's Dictionary, 

Neiv Edition. 

London, 1872. 

8 vols. 8vo. Cloth, $20.00. Half Morocco, $27.50. 

A Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Edited by "W. T. 
Beande and Eev. Geo. W. Cox. New and enlarged edition. 



Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry. 

Suiyplenientarij Volume, 

8vo. Cloth. $9.00. 

This volume brings the Record of Chemical Discovery down to the end of 
the year, 1869, including- also several additions to, and corrections of, former 
results which have appeared in 1870 and 1871. 

*„■" Complete Sets of the Work, New and Revised edition, including- above 
supplement. 6 vols. 8vo. Cloth. $62.00. 



Rammelsberg's Chemical Analysis. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.25. 

GUIDE TO A COUESE OF QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL 
ANALYSIS, ESPECIALLY OF MINEEALS AND FUR- 
NACE PEODUCTS. Illustrated by Examples. By C. F. 
Eammelsberg. Translated by J. Towler, M.D. 

This work has been translated, and is now published expressly for those 
students in chemistry whose time and other studies in colleges do not permit 
them to enter upon the more elaborate and expensive treatises of Fresenius 
and others. It ia the condensed labor of a master in chemistry and of a prac- 
tical analyst. 



18 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Eliot and Storer's Qualitative 
Chemical Analysis. 

^ew Edition, Bevised, 

12mo. Illustrated. Cloth. $1.50. 

A COMPENDIOUS MANUAL OF QUALITATIVE CHEMI- 
CAL ANALYSIS. By Chaeles W. Eliot and Frank H. Stokee. 
Hevised with tlio Cooperation of the Authors, by William Rii- 
LEY Nichols, Professor of Chemistry in the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology. 

" This Manual has great merits as a practical introduction to the science 
and the art of which it treats. It contains enough of the theory and practice 
of qualitative analysis, " in the wet way, ' to bring out all the reasoning in- 
volved in the science, and to present clearly to the student the most approved 
methods of the art. It is specially adapted for exercises and experiments in 
the laboratory; and yet its classifications and manner of treatment are so 
systematic and logical throughout, as to adapt it in a high degree to that 
higher class of students generally who desire an accurate knowledge of the 
practical methods of arriving at scientific facts." — Luiheran Observer. 

" We wish every academical class in the land could have the benefit of the 
fifty exercises of two hours each necessary to master this book. Chemistry 
would cease to be a mere matter of memory, and become a pleasant experi- 
mental and intellectual recreation. We heartily commend this little volume 
to the notice of thote teachers who believe in using the sciences as means of 
mental discipline." — College Courant. 



Craig's Decimal System, 

Square 32mo. Limp. 50c. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. An Account of the Decimal 
System, with Tables of Conversion for Commercial and Scientific 
Uses. By B. F. Ceaig, M. D. 

" The most lucid, accurate, and useful of all the hand-books on this subject 
that we have yet seen. It gives forty-seven tables of comparison between the 
English and French denominations of length, area, capacity, weight, and tho 
Centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers, with clear instructions how to use 
them ; and to this practical portion, which helps to make the transition as 
easy as possible, is prefixed a scientific explanation of the errors in the metric 
By stem, and how they may be corrected iu the laboratory." — Nation^ 



D. VAN NO ST RAND. 39 



Nugent on Optics. 

12ino. Cloth. $2.00 

TEEATISE ON OPTICS ; or, Light and Sight, theoretically and 
practically treated ; ^\ith the application to Fine Art and Indus- 
trial Pursuits. By E. Nugent. With one hundred and three 
illustrations. 

" This book is of a practical rather than a theoretical kind, and is de- 
signed to afford, accurate and complete information to all interested in appli- 
cations of the science." — Round Table. 



Barnard's Metric System. 

8vo. Brown cloth. $3.00. 

THE METEIO SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 

An Address delivered before the Convocation of the University of 
the State of New York, at Albany, August, 1871. By Frederick 
A. P. Barnard, President of Columbia College, New York City. 
Second edition from the Pevised edition printed for the Trustees 
of Columbia College. Tinted paper. 

" It is the best summary of the arguments in favor of the metric weights 
and measures with which we are acquainted, not only because it contains in 
small space the loading facts of the case, but because it puts the advocacy of 
that system on the only tenable groundr*, namely, the great convenience of a 
decimal notation of weight and measure as well as money, the value of int<-)r- 
national uniformity in the matter, and the fact that this metric system 33 
adopted and in general use by the majority of civilized nations." — The Natior^ 



The Young Mechanic. 

Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth. $1.75. 

THE YOUNG MECHANIC. Containing directions for the use 
of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam engines 
and mechanical models, including the Art of Turning in Wood 
and Metal. By the author of "The Lathe and its Uses," etc. 
From the English edition, with corrections. 



20 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Harrison's Mechanic's Tool-Book. 

12mo. Cloth. $1.50. 

MECHANIC'S TOOL BOOK, with practical rules and suggestions, 
for the use of Machinists, Iron Workers, and others. By W. B. 
Hakrison, Associate Editor of the "American Artisan." Illustra- 
ted with 44 engravings. 

" This work is specially adapted to meet the wants of Machinists and work- 
ers in iron jjencrally. It is made up of the work-day experience of an intelli- 
gent and ingenious mechanic, who had the faculty of adapting tools to various 
purposes. The practicability of his plans and suggestions are made apparent 
even to the unpractised eye by a series of well-executed wood engravings." — 
PJiiladelpliia Inquirer. 



Pope's Modern Practice of the Elec- 
tric Telegraph. 

Eighth E.ntion. 8vo. Cloth $2.00. 

A Hand-book for Electricians and Operators, By Ekank L. Pope. 
Seventh edition. Hevised and enlarged, and fully illustrated. 

Extract from Letter of Prof Morse. 

" I have had time only cursorily to examine its contents, but this examina- 
tion has resulted in great gratification, especially at the fairness and unpre- 
judiced tone of your whole work. 

" Your illvxstrated diagrams are admirable and beautifully executed. 

" I think all your instructions in the use of the telegraph apparatus judi- 
cious and correct, and I most cordially wish you success." 

Extract from I^ettcr of Prof G. W. Hough, of the Dudley Ohservntory. 

" There is no other work of this kind in the English language that con- 
tains in so small a compass so much practical information in the application 
of galvanic electricity to telegraphy. It should be in the hands of every one 
interested in telegraphy, or the use of Batteries for other purposes." 



Morsels Telegraphic Apparatus. 

Illustrated. 8vo. Cloth. ,$2.00. 

EXAMINATION OF THE TELEGEAPHIC APPAEATUS 
AND THE PROCESSES IN TELEGAPHY. By Samuel F. 
B. Morse, LL.D., United States Commissioner Paris Universal 
Exposition, lb67. 



IX VAY XOSTEAND. 21 

Sabine's History of the Telegraph. 

12nio. Cloth. $1.25. 

HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE ELECTRIC TELE- 
GRAPH, with Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. By 
Robert S.vbixe, G. E. Second edition, with additions. 

Contents. — I. Early Observations of Electrical Phenomena. II. Tele- 
graphs by Frictional Electricity. III. Telegraphs by Voltaic Electricity. 
IV. Telegraphs by Electro-Magnetism and Magneto-Electricity. V. Tele- 
graphs now in use. VI. Overhead Lines. VII. Submarine Telegraph Lines. 
VIII. Underground Telegraphs. IX. Atmospheric Electricity. 



Haskins' Galvanoineter, 

Pocket form. Illustrated. Morocco tucks. $2.00. 

THE GALVANOMETER, AND ITS USES ; a Manual for 
Electricians and Students. By 0. IL Haskixs. 

"We hope this excellent little work will meet with the sale its merits 
entitle it to. To every telegrapher who ownS; or uses a Galvanometer, or 
ever expects to, it will be quite indispensable." — TJie Telegrapher. 



Cnlley's Hand-Book of Telegraphy. 

8vo. Cloth. IG.OO. 
A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHY. By 

R. S. CuLLEY, Engineer to the Electric and LiternationrJ 
Telegraph Company. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. 



Foster's Submarine Blasting. 

4to. Cloth. $3.50. 

SUBMARINE BLASTING in Boston Harbor, Massachusetts— 
Reuioval of Tower and Corwin Rocks. By John G. Foster, 
Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers, and Brevet Major- General, U. 
S. Army. Illustrated with seven plates. 

List of Plates. — 1. Sketch of the Narrows, Boston Harbor. 2. 
Townsends Submarine Drilling Machine, and Working- Vessel attending. 
8. Submarine Drilling Machine employed. 4. Details of Drilling Machine 
employed. 5. Cartridges and Tamping used. G. Fuses and Insulated Wires 
used. 7. Portable Friction Battery used. 



22 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 



Barnes' Snbmariiie Warfare. 

8vo. Cloth. ^^5.00. 

SUBMAEINE WARFARE, DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE. 

Comprising a full and complete History of the Invention of the 
Torpedo, its employment in War and results of its use. De- 
scriptions of the Tarious forms of Torj)edoos, Submarine Batteries 
and Torpedo Boats actually used in War. Methods of Ignition 
by Machinery, Contact Fuzes, and Electricity, and a full account 
of experiments made to determine the Explosive Force of Gun- 
j)Owder under AVater. Also a discussion of the Offensive Torpedo 
system, its effect upon Iron-Clad Ship systems, and influence upon 
Future Naval Wars. By Lieut. -Commander John S. Baenes, 
U. S. N. AVitli twenty lithographic plates and many wood-cuts. 

" A book important to military men, and especially so to engineers and ar- 
tillerists. It consists of an examination of the various offensive and defensive 
engines that have been contrived for submarine hostilities, including a discus- 
sion of the toi'pedo system, its effects upon iron-clad ship-systems, and its 
probable influence upon future naval wars. Plates of a valuable character 
accompany the treatise, which affords a iiseful history of the momentous sub- 
ject it discusses. A great deal of useful information is collected in its pages, 
especially concerning the inventions of ScnoLL and Verdu, and of Jones' 
and Hunt's batteries, as well as of other similar machines, and the use in 
submarine operations of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine." — N. Y. Times. 



Randairs Quartz Operator's Hand- 

Book. 

12mo. (^loth. $2.00. 

QUARTZ OPEEATOR'S HAND-BOOK. By P, M. Randall. 

New edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustrated. 

The object of this work has been to present a clear and comprehensive ex- 
position of mineral veins, aud the means and modes chiefly employed for the 
mining and working of their ores — more especially those containing gold and 
silver. 



D. VAX XOSTRAXn. 23 

Mitcheirs Mannal of Assaying. 

8vo. Cloth. $10.00. 

A MANUAL OF PEACTICAL ASSAYING. By Johi^ Mitchell. 
Third edition. Edited by William Ckookes, E.E.S. 

In this edition are incorporated all the late important discoveries in Assay- 
ing made in this country and abroad, and special care is devoted to the very 
important Volumetric and Colorimetric Assays, as well as to the Blow-Pipe 

Assays. 



Benet's Clironoscope. 

Second Edition, 

Illustrated. 4to. Cloth. |3.00. 

ELECTEO-BALLISTIC MxlCHINES, and tlie Scliultz Clirono- 
scope. By Lieutenant-Colonel S. V. Benet, Captain of Ordnance, 
U. S. Army. 

Contents. — 1. Ballistic Pendulum. 2. Gun Pendulum. 3. Use of Elec- 
tricity. 4. Navez' Machine. 5. Vignotti's Machine, with Plates. 6. Benton's 
Electro-Ballistic Pendulum, with Plates. 7. Leur's Tro-Pendulum Machine 
8. Schultz'a Chronoscope, with two Plates. 



Micliaelis' Chroiiograpli. 

4to. Illustrated. Cloth. $3.00. 

THE LE BOIJLENGE CHEONOGEAPH. With three litho- 
graphed folding plates of illustrations. By Brevet Captain E. 
MiCHAELis, Eirst Lieutenant Ordnance Corps, U. S. Army, 

" The excellent monograph of Captain Michaelis enters minutely into the 
details of construction and management, and gives tables of the times of flight 
calculated upon a given fall of the chronometer for all distances. Captain 
Michaelis has done good service in presenting this work to his brother officers, 
describing, as it does, an instrument which bids fair to be in constant use in 
our future ballistic experiments.' — Armi/ and Navy Jourrud^ 



24 SCIENTIFIC BOOKH PUBLISHED BY 

Silversmith's Hand-Book. 

Fourth Edition. 

Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth. $3.00. 

A PEACTICAL HAND-BOOK FOR MINERS, Metallurgist^ 
and Assayers, comprising the most recent improvements in the 
disintegration, amalgamation, smelting, and ^^''^^ting of tiio 
Precious Ores, with a Comprehensive Digest of the Mining 
Laws. Greatly augmented, revised, and corrected. By Julius 
Silversmith. Fourth edition. Profusely illustrated. 1 vol. 
12mo. Cloth. $3.00. 

One of the most important features of this work is that in which the 
metallurgy of the precious metals is treated of. In it the author has endeav- 
ored to embody all the processes for the reduction and manipulation of the 
precious ores heretofore successfully employed in G-ermany, England, Mexico, 
and the United States, together with such as have been more recently invented, 
and not yet fully tested — all of which are x^rofusely illustrated and easy of 
comprehension. 



Simms' Levelling. 

8vo. Cloth. 12.5^. 

A TREATISE ON THE PEINCIPLES AND PPACTICE OF 
LEVELLING, showing its application to purposes of Railway 
Engineering and the Construction of Roads, &c. By Frederick 
"VV. Simms, C. E. From the fifth London edition, revised and 
corrected, with the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for 
Setting Out Railway Curves. Illustrated with three lithographic 
j)lates and numerous wood-cuts. 

" One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there 
is scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution would be 
sought, but that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting this volume." 
— Mining Journal. 

" The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and col- 
leges." — Engineers. 

"The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, 
especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of 
Mr. Simms' useful work." — Engineering, 



D. VAN N'OSTUANB. 25 

Stnart's Successful Engineer. 

18mo. Boards. 50 cents. 

HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL EISi GUSTEER : Being 
Hints to Youths intending to adopt the Profession. By 
Berxard Stuart, Eiigineer. Sixth Edition. 

"A valuable little book of sound, sensible advice to yoimp men wlio 
wish, to rise in the most important of the professions." — Scieniijic American. 



Stuart's Naval Dry Docks, 

Twenty-four engravings on steel. 
Fourth Edition, 

4to. Cloth. $6.00. 

THE NAVAL DRY DOCKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

By Chaeles B. Stuaet. Engineer in Chief of the United States 
Navy. 

X/ist of Illustratio7is. 

Pumping Engine and Pumps — Plan of Dry Dock and Pump-Well - Sec- 
tions of Dry Dock — Engine House — Iron Tloating Gate — Details of Floating 
Gate — Iron Turning Gate — Plan of Turning Gate — Culvert Gate — Filling 
Culvert Gates — Engine Bed — Plate, Pumps, and Culvert — Engine House 
Eoof — Floating Sectional Dock — Details of Section, and Plan of Turn-Tables 
— Plan of Basin and Marine Railways — Plan of Sliding Frame, and Elevation 
of Pumps — Hydraulic Cylinder — Plan of Gearing for Pumps and End Floats 
— Perspective View of Dock, Basin, and Railway — Plan of Basin of Ports- 
mouth Dry Dock — Floating Balance Dock — Elevation of Trusses and the Ma- 
chinery — Perspective View of Balance Dry Dock 



Free Hand Dra^ng. 

Profusely Illustrated. 18mo. Boards. 50 cents. 

A GUIDE TO ORNAMENTAL, Figure, and Landscape Draw- 
ing. By an Art Student. 

Contents. — Materials employed in Drawing, and how to use them — On. 
Lines and how to Draw them — On Shading — Concerning lines and shading, 
with applications of them to simple elementary subjects — Sketches from Na- 
ture. 



26 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Minifie s Meclianical Drawing. 

Eighth Edition. 

Boyal 8vo. Cloth. $4.00. 

A TEXT-BOOK OF GEOMETEICAL DEAWING for the use 

of Mechanics and Schools, in which the Definitions and E-ules of 
Geometry are famiharly explained ; the Practical Problems are 
arranged, from the most simple to the more complex, and in their 
description technicalities are avoided as much as jjossible. "With 
illustrations for Drawing Plans, Sections, and Elevations of 
Buildings and Machinery ; an Introduction to Isometrical Draw- 
ing, and an' Essay on Linear Perspective and Shadows. Illus- 
trated with over 200 diagrams engraved on steel. By Wm, 
MI^^IFIE, Architect. Eighth Edition. With an Appendix on the 
Theory and Application of Colors. 

" It is the best Avork on Drawing that we have ever seen, and is especially a 
text-book of Geometrical Drawing for the use of Mechanics and Schools. No 
young- Mechanic, such as a Machinist, Engineer, Cabinet-Maker, Millwright, 
or Carpenter, should be without it." — Scientific American. 

" One of the most comprehensive works of the kind ever published, and can- 
not but possess great value to builders. The style is at once elegant and sub- 
stantial." — Pennsylcania Inquirer. 

" Whatever is said is rendered perfectly intelligible by remarkably well- 
executed diagrams on steel, leaving nothing for mere vague supposition ; and 
the addition of an introduction to isometrical drawing, linear perspective, and 
the projection of shadows, winding up with a iiseful index to technical terms." 
— Glasgow 3Iec.hanics' Journal. 

^^ The British G-overnment has authorized the use of this book in their 
schools of art at Somerset House, London, and throughout the kingdom. 



Minifie's Geometrical Drawing. 

New Edition, Enlarged^ 

12mo. Cloth. 12.00. 

GEOMETEICAL DEAWING. Abridged from the octavo edition, 
for the use of Schools. Illustrated with 48 steel plates. New 
edition, enlarged. 

*• It is well adapted as a text-book of drawing to be used in our High Schools 
and Academies where this useful branch of the fine arts has been hitherto too 
much neglected." — Boston Journal. 



D. VAJSr NOSTBAJSTD. 27 

Bell on Iron Smelting. 

8vo. Cloth. $6.a0. 

CHEMICAL PHENOMENA OF lEON SMELTING. An ex- 
perimental and practical examination of the circumstances which 
determine the capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature 
of the Air, and the Proper Condition of the Materials to be 
operated upon. By I. Lowthian Bell. 

" The reactions which take place in every foot of the blast-furnace have 
been investigated, and the nature of every step in the process, from the intro- 
duction of the raw material into the furnace to the production of the pig iron, 
has been carefully ascertained, and recorded so fully that any one in the trade 
can readily avail themselves of the knowledge acquired ; and we have no hes- 
itation in saying that the judicious application of such knowledge will do 
much to facilitate the introduction of arrangements which will still further 
economize fuel, and at the same time permit of the quality of the resulting 
metal being maintained, if not improved. The volume is one which no prac- 
tical pig iron manufacturer can afford to be without if he be desirous of en- 
tering upon that competition which nowadays is essential to progress, and 
in issuing such a work Mr. Bell has entitled himself to the best thanks of 
every member of the trade." — London Mining Journal, 



Zing's Notes on Steam, 

Thirteenth Edition. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

LESSONS AND PEACTICAL NOTES ON STEAM, the Steam- 
Engine, Propellers, &c., &c., for Young Engineers, Students, and 
others. By the late W. B. King, U. S. N. Eevised by Chief- 
Engineer J. W. King, IT. S. Navy. 

*' This is one of the best, because eminently plain and practical treatises on 
the Steam Engine ever published. ' — Philadelphia Press. 

This is the thirteenth edition of a valuable work of the late W. H. King, 
TJ. S. N. It contains -lessons and practical notes on Steam and the Steam En- 
gine, Propellers, etc. It is calculated to be of great use to young marine en- 
gineers, students, and others. The text is illustrated and explained by nu- 
merous diagrams and representations of machinery. —ijosio>/i Daily Adver- 
User. 

Text-book at the U. S. Naval Academy, AnnapoUs. 



28 SCIENTIFIC DOCKS PUBLISHED BY 

Burgh's Modern Marine Engineering. 

One thick 4to vol. Cloth. $25.00. Half morocco. $30.00. 

MODEEN MAEINE ENG-INEEEING, applied to Paddle and 
Screw Propulsion. Consisting of 3G Colored Plates, 259 Practical 
AVood-cut Illustrations, and 403 pages of Descriptive Matter, the 
whole being an exposition of the present practice of the follow- 
ing firms : Messrs. J. Penn & Sons ; Messrs. Maudslay, Sons & 
Eield ; Messrs, James Watt & Co. ; Messrs. J. & Gr. Eennie ; 
Messrs. E. Napier & Sons ; Messrs. J. & W. Dudgeon ; Messrs. 
Eavenhill & Hodgson ; Messrs. Humphreys & Tenant ; Mr. 
J. T. Spencer, and Messrs. Forrester & Co. By N. P. Buegu, 
Engineer. 

Principal Contents. — General Arrangements of Engines, 11 examples 
— General Arrangement of Boilers, 14 examples — General Arrangement of 
Superheaters, 11 examples — Details of Oscillating Paddle Engines, 34 ex- 
amples — Condensers for Screw Engines, both Injection and Surface, 20 ex- 
amples — Details of Screw Engines, 20 examples — Cylinders and Details of 
Screw Engines, 21 examples — Slide Valves and Details, 7 examples — Slide 
Valve, Link Motion, 7 examples — Expansion Valves and Gear, 10 exam- 
ples — Details in General, 00 examples — Screw Propeller and Fittings, 13 ex- 
amples Engine and Boiler Fittings, 28 examples - In relation to the Princi- 
ples of the Marine Engine and Boiler, 33 examples. 

Notices of the Press. 

"Every conceivable detail of the Marine Engine, under all its various 
forms, is profusely, and we must add, admirably illustrated by a multitude 
of engravings, selected from the best and most modern practice of the first 
Marine Engineers of the day. The chapter on Condensers is peculiarly valu- 
able. In one word, there is no other work in existence which "will bear a 
moment's comparison with it as an exponent of the skill, talent and practical 
experience to which is due the splendid reputation enjoyed by many British 
Marine Engineers." — Engineer. 

*' This very comprehensive work, which was issued in Monthly parts, has 
just been completed. It contains large and full drawings and copious de- 
scriptions of most of the best examples of Modern Marin© Engines, and it is 
a complete theoretical and practical treatise on the subject of Marine Engi- 
neering." — American Artisan. 

This is the only edition of the above work with the beautifully colored 
plates, and it is out of print in England. 



X>. VAJ^ J^OSTBAN'D. 29 

' — — 't 

Bourne's Treatise on the Steam En 

gine. 

Ninth Edition, 

Illustrated. 4to. Cloth. $15.00. 
TEEATISE ON THE STEAM ENGINE in its various applica. 
tions to Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation, Bailways, and AgricuL 
ture, with the theoretical investigations respecting the MotivQ 
Power of Iloat and the proper Proportions of Steam Engines. 
Elaborate Tables of the right dimensions of every part, and 
Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of 
every species of Engine in actual use. By John" Bouexe, being 
the ninth edition of " A Treatise on the Steam Engine," by 
the "Artisan Club." Illustrated by thirty-eight plates and five 
hundred and forty-six wood-cuts. 

As Mr. Bourne's -work has the great merit of avoiding unsound and imma- 
ture views, it may safely be consulted by all who are really desirous of ac- 
quiring trustworthy information on the subject of which it treats. During 
the twenty-two years which have elapsed from the issue of the first edition, 
the improvements introduced in the construction of the steam engine have 
been both numerous and important, and of these Mr. Bourne has taken care 
to point out the more prominent, and to furnish the reader with such infor- 
mation as shall enable him readily to judge of their relative value. This edi- 
tion has been thoroughly modernized, and made to accord with the opinions 
and practice of the more successful engineers of the present day. All that 
the book professes to give is given with ability and evident care. The scien- 
tific principles which are permanent are admirably explained, and reference 
is made to many of the more valuable of the recently introduced engines. To 
express an opinion of the value and utility of such a work as The Artisan 
Club's Treatise on the Steam Engine, which has passed through eight editions 
already, would be superfluous ; but it may be safely stated that the work is 
worthy the attentive study of all either engaged in the manufacture of steam 
engines or interested in economizing the use of steam. — Mining Journal. 



Isherwood's Engineering Precedents. 

Two Vols, in One. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50. 

ENGINEEEINa PEECEDENTS FOP STEAM MACHINEEY. 

Arranged in the most practical and useful manner for Engineers. 
By B. E. IsHERWooD, Civil Engineer, U. S. Navy. With illus- 
trations. 



30 SCIEJSrTIFIC DOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Ward's Steam for the Million, 

Netv ami Ilevised JEditlon, 

8vo. Cloth. $1.00. 

STEAM FOE THE MILLION. A Popular Treatise on Steam 
and its Application to the Useful Arts, especially to Naviga- 
tion. By J. H. Ward, Commander U. S. Navy. New and re- 
vised edition. 

A most excellent work for the young- engineer and general reader. Many 
facts relating" to the management of the boiler and engine are set forth ■vrith a 
simplicity of language and perfection of detail that bring the subject home 
to the reader. — American Engineer. 



Walker's Screw Propulsion. 

8vo. Cloth. 75 cents. 

NOTES ON SCEEW PEOPULSION, its Eise and History. By 
Capt. W. H. Walker, U. S. Navy. 

Commander Walker's book contains an immense amount of concise practi- 
cal data, and every item of information recorded fully proves that the various 
points bearing upon it have been well considered previously to expressing an 
opinion. — London fining Journal. 



Page's Earth's Crust. 

18mo. Cloth. 75 cents. 

THE EAETH'S CEUST ; a Handy Outline of Geology. By 
David Page. 

** Such a work as this was much wanted — a work giving in clear and intel- 
ligible outline the leading facts of the science, without amj)lification or irk- 
some details. It is admirable in arrangement, and clear and easy, and, at the 
same time, forcible in style. It will lead, we hope, to the introduction of 
Geology into many schools that have neither time nor room for the study of 
large treatises." — The 31useum. 



D. VAN NOSTllARn. 31 

Rogers' Geology of Pennsylvaiiia. 

3 Vols. 4to, with Pcrrtfolio of Maps. Cloth. $30.00. 

THE GEOLOGY OF PENNSYLVANIA. A Government Sur- 
vey. With a general view of the Geology of the United States, 
Essays on the Coal Formation and its Fossils, and a description 
of the Coal Fields of North America and Great Britain. By 
Henry Dahwin" Kogers, Late State Geologist of Pennsylvania. 
Splendidly illustrated with Plates and Engravings in the Text. 

It certainly should be in ever j public library throughout the country, and 
likewise in the possession of all students of G-eology. After the final sale of 
these copies, the work will, of course, become more valuable. 

The work for the last five years has been entirely out of the market, but a 
few copies that remained in the hands of Prof. Rogers, in Scotland, at the 
time of his death, are now offered to the public, at a price which is evea 
below what it was originally sold for when first published. 



Morfit on Pure Fertilizers. 

AYith 28 Illustrative Plates. 8vo. Cloth. $20.00. 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON PURE FERTILIZERS, and 
the Chemical Conversion of Rock Guanos, Mar.lstones, Coprolites, 
and the Crude Phosphates of Lime and Alumina Generally, into 
various Valuable Products. By Campbell Moefit, M.D., F.C.S. 



Sweet's Report on Coal. 

Svo. Cloth. $3.00. 

SPECIAL REPORT ON COAL ; showing its Distribution, Classi- 
fication, and Cost delivered over different routes to various points 
in the State of New York, and the principal cities on the Atlantic 
Coast. By S. H. Sweet. With maps. 



Colbiirn's Gas Works of London, 

12mo. Boards. 60 cents. 
GAS WORKS OF LONDON. By Zerah Coleuen. 



32 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

The Useful Metals and their Alloys ; 
ScofFren, Triiran, and others. 

Fifth Edition. 

8vo. Half calf. $3.7o. 

THE USEFUL METALS AND THEIE ALLOYS, incliding 
MINING VENTILATION, MINING- JUEISPEUDENCE 
AND METALLURGIC CHEMISTRY employed in the conver- 
sion of IRON, COPPER, TIN, ZINC, ANTIMONY, AND 
LEAD ORES, with their applications to THE INDUSTRIAL 
ARTS. By John ScoffivEX, William Truran, William Clay, 
Robert Oxland, William Fairbairx, W. C. Aitkin, and Wil- 
liam VosE Pickett. 



Collins^ Useful Alloys. 

18mo. riexible. 75 cents. 

THE PRIVATE BOOK OF USEFUL' ALLOYS and Memo- 
randa for Goldsmiths, Jewellers, etc. By James E. Collins 

This little book is compiled from notes made by the Author from the 
papers of one of the largest and most eminent Manufacturing Groldsmiths and 
Jewellers in this country, and as the firm is now no longer in existence, and the 
Author is at present engaged in some other undertaking, he now offers to the 
public the benefit of his experience, and in so doing he begs to state that all 
the alloys, etc., given in these pages may be confidently relied on as being 
thoroughly practicable. 

The Memoranda and Receipts throughout this book are also compiled 
from practice, and will no doubt be found useful to the practical jeweller. 
—Shirley, July, 1871. 

Joynson s Metals Used in Construction. 

12mo. Cloth. 75 cents. 

THE METALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION: Iron, Steel, 
Bessemer Metal, etc., etc. By Francis Heebert Joynson. Il- 
lustrated. 

" In the interests of practical science, we are bound to notice this work ; 
and to those who wish further information, we should say, buy it ; and the 
outlay, we honestly believe, will be considered well spent." — HcientiJiG 

Ecciccv. 



D. VAN JSrOSTBANB. 83 

HoUey's Ordnance and Armor. 

493 Engravings. Half Roan, $10.00. Half Russia, $12.00. 

A TEEATISE ON OEDNANCE AND AEMOE— Embracing 
Descriptions, Discussions, and Professional Opinions concerning 
the Material, Eabrication, Eequirenients, Capabilities, and En- 
durance of European and American Guns, for Naval, Sea Coast, 
and Iron-clad Warfare, and their Eifling, Peojectiles, and 
Beeech-Loading ; also, Eesults of Experiments against Armor, 
from Official Eecords, with an Appendix referring to Grun-Cotton, 
Hooped Guns, etc., etc. By Alexander L. Holley, B. P. 948 
pages, 493 Engravings, and 147 Tables of Eesults, etc. 

Contents. 

Chapter I. — Standard Guns and their Fabrication Described : Section 1. 
Hooped Gruns ; Section 2. Solid AVrought Iron Guns ; Section 3. Solid Steel 
Guns ; Section 4. Cast-iron Guns. Cuapter II. — The Requirements of Guns, 
Armor: Section 1. The Work to be done; Section 2. Heavy Shot at Low Ve- 
locities ; Section 3. Small Shot at High Velocities ; Section 4. The two Sys- 
tems Combined ; Section 5. Breaching Masonry. Chapter III. — The Strains 
and Structure of Guns: Section 1. Kesistance to Elastic Pressure; Section 2. 
The Effects of Vibration; Sectioa 3. The Eifects of Heat. Chapter IV.— 
Cannon Metals and Processes of Fabrication: Section 1. Elasticity and Ductil- 
ity; Section 2. Cast-Iron; Section 3. Wrought Iron; Section 4. Steel; Sec- 
tion 5. Bronze ; Section 6. Other Alloys. Chapter V. — Rifling and Projec- 
tiles ; Standard Forms and Practice Described ; Early Experiments ; The 
Centring System ; The Compressing System ; The Expansion System ; Armor 
Punching Projectiles; Shells for Molten Metal; Competitive Trial of Rifled 
Guns, 18G2; Duty of Rifled Guns: General Uses, Accuracy, Range, Velocity , 
Strain, Liability of Projectile to Injury ; Firing Spherical Shot from Rifled 
Guns ; Material for Armor-Punching Projectiles ; Shape of Armor-Punching 
Projectiles; Capacity and. Destructiveness of Shells; Elongated Shot from 
Smooth Bores; Conclusions; Velocity of Projectiles i Table . Chapter VI. — 
Breech-Loading Advantages and Defects of the System; Rapid Firing and 
Cooling Guns by Machinery ; Standard Breech-Loaders Described. Part Sec- 
ond : Experiments against Armor ; Account of Experiments from Official 
Records in Chronological Order. Appendix. — Report on the Application of 
Gun-Cotton to Warlike Purposes — British Association, 1863; Manufacture and 
Experiments in England ; Guns Hooped with Initial Tension — History; How- 
Guns Burst, by Wiard, Lyman's Accelerating Gun; Endurance of Parrott 
and Whitworth Guns at Charleston ; Hooping old United States Cast-Iron 
Guns ; Endurance and Accuracy of the Armstrong 600-pounder; Competitive 
Trials with 7-inch Guns. 



34 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Peirce's Analytic Meclianics. 

4to. Cloth. $10.00. 

system: of analytic mechanics. Physical and Celestial 
Meclianics. By Benjamin Peirce, Perkins Professor of Astronomy 
and Mathematics in Harvard University, and Consulting As- 
tronomer of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. 
Developed in four systems of Analytic Mechanics, Celestial 
Mechanics, Potential Physics, and Analytic Morphology. 

" I have re-examined the memoirs of the great geom.eters, and have striven 
to consolidate their latest researches and their most exalted forms of thought 
into a consistent and uniform treatise. If I have hereby succeeded in open- 
ing to the students of my country a readier access to these choice jewels of 
intellect ; if their brilliancy is not impaired in this attempt to reset them ; if, 
in their own constellation, they illustrate each other, and concentrate 
a stronger light upon the names of their discoverers , and, still more, if any 
gem which I may have presumed to add is not wholly lustreless in the collec- 
tion, I shall feel that my work has not been in vain." — Extract from the Pre- 
face. 



Burt's Key to Solar Compass. 

Second Edithon. 

Pocket Book Eorm. Tuck. $2.50. 

KEY TO THE SOLAK COMPASS, and Surveyor's Companion ; 
comprising all the Pules necessary for use in the field ; also, 
Description of the Linear Surveys and Public Land System of 
the United States, Notes on the Barometer, Suggestions for an 
outfit for a Survey of four months, etc., etc., etc. By W. A. 
BuiiT, U. S. Deputy Surveyor. Second edition. 



CliauYeiiet's Lunar Distances. 

8vo. Cloth. $3.00. 

NEW METHOD OF COERECTINa LUNAP DISTANCES, 
and Improved Method of Finding the Error and Pate of a Chro- 
nometer, by equal altitudes. By Wm. Chauvenet, LL.D., Chan- 
cellor of Washington University of St. Louis. 



J). YAK JSrOSTRAND. 35 



JefFers' Nautical Surveying. 

Illustrated with. 9 Copperplates and 31 Wood-cut Illustrations. 8vo. 
Cloth. $5.00. 

NAUTICAL SUEYEYING. By William N. Jeffees, Captain 
U. S. Navy. 

Many books have been written on each of the subjects treated of in the 
sixteen chapters of this work; and, to obtain a complete knowledge of 
geodetic surveying requires a profound study of the whole range of mathe- 
Inatical and physical sciences ; but a year of preparation should render any 
intelligent officer competent to conduct a nautical survey. 

Contents. — Chapter I. Formulae and Constants Useful in Surveying 
II. Distinctive Character of Surveys. III. Hydrographic Surveying ujider 
Sail ; or, Running Survey. IV. Hydrographic Surveying of Boats ; or, Har- 
bor Survey. V. Tides — Definition of Tidal Phenomena — Tidal Observations. 
VI. Measurement of Bases — Appropriate and Direct. VII. Measurement of 
the Angles of Triangles — Azimuths — Astronomical Bearings. VIII. Correc- 
tions to be Applied to the Observed Angles. IX. Levelling — Difference of 
Level. X. Computation of the Sides of the Triangulation — The Three-point 
Problem. XL Determination of the Geodetic Latitudes, Longitudes, and 
Azimuths, of Points of a Triangulation. XII. Summary of Subjects treated 
of in preceding Chapters — Examples of Computation by various Formulse. 
XIII. Projection of Charts and Plans. XIV. Astronomical Determination of 
Latitude and Longitude. XV. Magnetic Observations. XVI. Deep Sea 
Soundings. XVII. Tables for Ascertaining Distances at Sea, and a full 
Index. 

List of Plates. 

Plate I. Diagram Illustrative of the Triangulation. II. Specimen Page 
of Field Book. III. Running Survey of c Coast. IV. Example of a Running 
Survey from Belcher. V. Flying Survey of an Island. VI. Survey of a 
Shoal. VII. Boat Survey of a River. VIII. Three-Point Problem. IX, 
Triangulation. 

Coffin's Navigation. 

Fifth Edition. 

12mo. Cloth. $3.50. 

NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. Prepared 
for the use of the U. S. Naval Academy. By J. H. C. Coffin, 
Prof, of Astronomy, Navigation and Surveying, with 52 wood- 
cut illustrations. 



86 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Clark's Theoretical Navigation. 

8vo. Cloth. $3.00. 

tHEOHETICAL NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTEON- 
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Prepared for Use at the U. S. Naval Academy. 



The Plane Table. 

Illustrated. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

iTS USES IN TOPOGEAPHICAL SURVEYING. Erom the 
Papers of the U. S. Coast Survey. 

This work gives a description of the Plane Table employed at the U. S. 
Coast Survey Office, and the manner of using it. 



Pook on Shipbuilding. 

8vo. Cloth. $5.00. 

METHOD OF COMPAEING THE LINES AND DRAUGHT- 
ING VESSELS PROPELLED BY SAIL OE STEAM, in- 
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Samuel M. Pook, Naval Constructor. 1 vol., 8vo. With, illus- 
trations. Cloth. $5.00. 



Brunnow's Spherical Astronomy. 

8vo. Cloth. $6.50. 

SPHEEICAL ASTEONOMY. By F. Brunnow, Ph. Dr. Trans- 
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1), VAJSr JS'OSTBAJ^D. 37 

Van Buren's Formulas. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

INVESTIGATIONS OF FOEMULAS, for the Strengtli of the 
Iron Parts of Steam Machinery. By J. D. Van- Buhex, Jr., C. E. 
lUudtrated. 

This is an analytical discussion of the formulae employed by mechanical 
engineers in determining the rupturing or crippling pressure in the different 
parts of a machine. The formulae are founded upon the principle, that the 
different parts of a machine should be equally strong, and are developed in 
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of a factor of safety to the judgment of the designer.— /S'i7?ma7i's Journal. 



Joyiison on Machine Gearing. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

THE MECHANIC'S AND STUDENT'S GUIDE in the Design- 
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and Curved Surfaces ; with Practical Bules and Details. Edited 
by Francis Herbert Joynsox. Illustrated with 18 folded 
plates. 

*' The aim of this work is to be a guide to mechanics in the designing and 
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plainly and sensibly written, and profusely illustrated." — Sunday Times. 



Barnard's Report, Paris Exposition, 

1867. 

Illustrated. 8vo. Cloth. $5.00. 

EEPORT ON MACHINERY AND PROCESSES ON THE 
INDUSTRIAL ARTS AND APPARATUS OF THE EXACT 
SCIENCES. By E. A. P. Barnard, LL.D.— Paris Universal 
Exposition, 1867. 

" We have in this volume the results of Dr. Barnard's study of the Paris 
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since the Universal Exhibition of 1851, and we doubt if anything equal to it 
has appeared this century."— /owr/ia^ Applied Chemistry. 



38 SCIEN'TIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BT 

Engineering Facts and Figures. 

18mo. Cloth. $2.50 per Volume. 

AN ANNUAL EEGISTER OF PEOGEESS IN MECHANI- 
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Each, volume sold separately. 



Beckwith's Pottery. 

8vo. Paper. 60 cents. 

OBSEEYATIONS ON THE MATEEIALS and Manufacture of 
Terra-Cotta, Stone- Ware, Fire-Brick, Porcelain and Encaustic 
Tiles, with Eemarks on the Products exhibited at the London 
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Engineer. 

" Everything is noticed in this book -which comes under the head of Pot- 
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followers of the ceramic art." — Eeening Mail. 



Dodd's Dictionary of Manufactures, etc. 

l^iiuo. Cloth. $2.00. 

DICTIONAEY OF MANUFACTUEES, MINING, MACHIN- 
EEY, AND THE INDUSTEIAL AETS. By Geouge Dodd. 

This work, a small book on a great subject, treats, in alphabetical ar- 
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cinctly noticed in connection with the processes which they undergo, but not 
as subjects of natural history. The operations of the Mine and the Mill, the 
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manixfacturing processes, are briefly described. The scale on which our chief 
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D. VAN NOSTRAJSTD. 89 

Stuart's Civil and Military Engineer- 
ing of America. 

8vo. Illustrated. Cloth. $5.00. 

THE CIVIL AND MILITAEY ENGINEEES OF AMEEICA. 
By General Charles B. Stuaet, Author of " Naval Dry Docks 
of the United States," etc., etc. Embellished with nine finely 
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by engravings of some of the most important and original works 
constructed in America. 

Containing sketches of the Life and Works of Major Andrew Ellicott, 
James Geddes (with Portrait \ Benjamin Wright (with Portrait), Canvass 
White (with Portrait), David Stanhope Bates, Nathan S. Koberts, Gridley 
Bryant (with Portrait), General Joseph G. Swift, Jesse L. Williams (with 
Portrait), Colonel William McRee, Samuel H. Kneass, Captain John Childe 
with Portrait^ Frederick Harbach, Major David Bates Douglas (with Por- 
trait), Jonathan Knight, Benjamin H. Latrobe (with Portrait), Colonel Char- 
les Ellet, Jr. vwith Portrait), Samuel Forrer, William Stuart Watson, John 
A. Eoebling. 



Alexander's Dictionary of Weights 
and Measures. 

8vo. Cloth. $3.50. 

UNIVEESAL DICTIONAEY OF WEIGHTS AND MEAS- 
URES, Ancient and Modern, reduced to the standards of the 
United States of America. By J. H. Alexander. New edition. 
1vol. 

" As a standard work of reference, this book should be in every library ; it 
is one which we have long wanted, and it will save much trouble and re- 
search." — Scientific American. ' 



Gouge on Ventilation, 

Third Edition Enlarged. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
NEW SYSTEM OF VENTILATION, which has been thoroughly 
tested under the patronage of many distinguished persons. By 
Henry A. Goxtge, with many illustrations. 



40 SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 

Saeltzer's Aconstics. 

12ino. Clotli. $2.00. 

TEEATISE ON ACOUSTICS in Connection with Ventilation. 
With a new theory based on an important discovery, of facihtat- 
ing clear and intelligible sound in any building. By Alexander 
Saeltzer. 

" A practical and very sound treatise on a subject of great importance to 
architects, and one to which there has hitherto been entirly too little attention 
paid. The author's theory is, that, by bestowing proper care upon the point 
of Acoustics, the requisite ventilation will be obtained, and 'oice versa. — 
Brooklyti Union. 



Myer's Manual of Signals, 

New Edition. Enlarged. 

12mo. 48 Plates full Roan. $5.00. 

MANUAL OF SIGNALS, for the Use of Signal Officers in the 
Field, and for Military and Naval Students, Military Schools, 
etc. A new edition, enlarged and illustrated. By Brig.-Gen. 
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the Signal Corps during the War of the Eebellion. 



Larrabee's Secret Letter and 
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18mo. Cloth. $1.00. 

CIPHEE AND SECEET LETTEE AND TELECEAPHIO 
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Code ever invented or discovered. Impossible to read without 
the Key. Invaluable for Secret, Military, Naval, and Diplo- 
matic Service, as well as for Brokers, Bankers, and Merchants. 
By C. S. Laerabee, the original inventor of the scheme. 



D. VAN NOSTRAND. 41 

Hunt's Designs for Central Park 
Gate^ways. 

4to. Cloth. $5.00. 

DESIGNS FOE THE GATEWAYS OF THE SOUTHEEN 
ENTEANCES TO THE CENTEAL PAEK. By Eichaed M. 
Hunt. "With, a description of the designs. 



Pickert and Metcalf's Art of Graining. 

1 vol. 4to. Cloth. $10.00. 

THE AET OF GEAINING. How Acquired and How Produced, 
with description of colors and their appHcation. By Charles 
Pickert and Abraham Metcalf. Beautifully illustrated with 42 
tinted plates of the various woods used in interior finishing. 
Tinted paper. 

The authors present here the result of long experience in the practice of 
this decorative art, and feel confident that they hereby offer to their brother 
artisans a reliable guide to improvement in the practice of graining. 



Portrait Gallery of the War. 

60 fine Portraits on Steel. Koyal 8vo. Cloth. $6.00. 

POETEAIT GALLEEY OF THE WAE, CIVIL, MILITAEY 
AND NAVAL. A Biographical Eecord. Edited by Frank 
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One Law in Nature. 

'12mo. Cloth. $1.50. 

ONE LAW IN NATUEE. By Capt. H. M. Lazelle, U. S. A. 
A New Corpuscular Theory, comprehending Unity of Force, 
Identity of Matter, and its Multiple Atom Constitution, applied 
to the Physical Affections or Modes of Energy. 



42 SCIENTIFIC B OKS :BTIBLISIIEB B Y 

Ernst's Manual of Military En- 
gineering. 

193 Wood Cuts and 5 Lithographed Plates. 12mo. Cloth. $5.00. 

A MANUAL OF PEACTICAL MILITAKY ENGINEER- 
ING. Prepared for the use of the Cadets of the U. S. Militarj 
Academy, and for Engineer Troops. By Capt. 0. H. Ernst, 
Corps of Engineers, Instructor in Practical Military Engi- 
neering, U. S. Military Academy. 



Churcli's Metallurgical Journey. 

24 Illustrations. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

NOTES OF A METALLUEGICAL JOURNEY IN' 
EUROPE. By John A. Church, Engineer of Mines. 



Blake's Precious Metals. 

8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
REPORT UPON THE PRECIOUS METALS : Being Statisti- 
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of the World. Represented at the Paris Universal Exposi- 
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of California. 



Clevenger's Surveying. 

Illustrated Pocket Form. Morocco Gilt. $2.50. 

A TREATISE ON THE METHOD OF GOVERNMENT 
SURVEYING, as prescribed by the United States Congress. 
and Commissioner of the General Land Office. With com- 
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for the use of the United States Surveyors in the Field, and 
Students who contemplate engaging in the business of Public 
Land Surveying. By S. R. Clevenger, U. S. Deputy Sur- 
veyor. 
" The reputation of the author as a surveyor guarantees an exhaustive 

treatise on this subject." — Dakota Register. 
" Purveyors have long needed a text-book of this description. — The Press. 



D. VAN NO STRAND. 43 



SILVER MINING REGIONS OF COLORADO, with some 
account of the different Processes now being introduced for 
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COLORADO : SCHEDULE OF ORES contributed by sundry 
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Maps. 25 cents. 



THE SILVER DISTRICTS OF NEVADA. With Map. 8vo. 
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ARIZONA : ITS RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. By Hon. 
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Paper. 25 cents. 



MONTANA AS IT IS. Being a general description of its Re- 
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the location of the different Mining Districts. To which is 
appended a complete Dictionaiy of The Snaee Language, and 
also of the famous Chinnook Jargon, with numerous critical and 
explanatory Notes. By Geanyille Stuakt. 8vo. Paper. $2.00. 



RAILWAY GAUGES. A Review of the Theory of Narrow 
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REPORT made to the President and Executive Board of the 
Texas Pacific Railroad. By Gen. G. P. Buell, Chief Engineer. 
8vo. Paper. 75 cents. 



44 SCIENCE SERIES PUBIISIIED BY 



Van Nostrand's Science Series. 



It is the intention of the Publisher of this Series to issue them at inter- 
vals of about a month. They will be put up in a uniform, neat and attrac- 
tive form, 18mo, fancy boards. The subjects will be of an eminently 
scientific character, and embrace as wide a range of topics as possible, all 
of the highest character. 

Price, 50 Cents Each. 
1. 

CHIMNEYS POR FUENACES, FIRE-PLACES, AND 
STEAM BOILERS. By R. Armstrong, C. E. 

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. By Zerah Colburn. 

3- 

PRACTICAL PESIGNING OF RETAININO WALLS 
By Arthur Jacob, A. B. With Illustrations. 

4. 

PROPORTIONS OF PINS USED IN BRIDGES. By 
Charles E. Bender, C. E. With Illustrations. 

5- 

VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. By W. F. Butler. With 
Illustrations. 

e. 
ON THE DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF STOR- 
AGE RESERVOIRS. By Arthur Jacob. With Illustra- 
tions. 

r. 
SURCHARGED AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF RETAIN- 
ING WALLS. By James S. Tate, C. E. 

8. 

A TREATISE ON THE COMPOUND ENGINE. By John 

Turnbull. With Illustrations. 

FUEL. By C. W^ Siemens to which is appended the Value of 
Artificial Fuels as compared with Coal. By J. Wormald, C. E. 

*^* Other works in preparation. 



UBRARV OF C^NCjHKS 




0001^33^3^7 



